

SDCC Compiler User Guide

SDCC 2.8.0
$Date:: 2008-03-14#$ 
$Revision: 5096 $



Table of Contents



Introduction

  About SDCC

SDCC (Small Device C Compiler) is free open source, 
retargettable, optimizing ANSI-C compiler by Sandeep Dutta 
designed for 8 bit Microprocessors. The current version targets 
Intel MCS51 based Microprocessors (8031, 8032, 8051, 8052[LaTeX Command: index]
, etc.), Dallas DS80C390 variants, Freescale (formerly Motorola) 
HC08 and Zilog Z80 based MCUs. It can be retargeted for other 
microprocessors, support for Microchip PIC, Atmel AVR is under 
development. The entire source code for the compiler is 
distributed under GPL. SDCC uses ASXXXX[LaTeX Command: index] & 
ASLINK[LaTeX Command: index], an open source retargetable 
assembler & linker. SDCC has extensive language extensions 
suitable for utilizing various microcontrollers and underlying 
hardware effectively. 

In addition to the MCU specific optimizations SDCC also does a 
host of standard optimizations like:

  global sub expression elimination, 

  loop optimizations (loop invariant, strength reduction of 
  induction variables and loop reversing), 

  constant folding & propagation, 

  copy propagation, 

  dead code elimination 

  jump tables for switch statements.

For the back-end SDCC uses a global register allocation scheme 
which should be well suited for other 8 bit MCUs. 

The peep hole optimizer uses a rule based substitution mechanism 
which is MCU independent. 

Supported data-types are:


+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
|  type    |       width         | default   |          signed range           | unsigned range                   |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
|  bool    |       1 bit         | unsigned  |               -                 | 0, 1                             |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
|  char    |   8 bits, 1 byte    |  signed   |           -128, +127            | 0, +255                          |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
|  short   |  16 bits, 2 bytes   |  signed   |        -32.768, +32.767         | 0, +65.535                       |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
|   int    |  16 bits, 2 bytes   |  signed   |        -32.768, +32.767         | 0, +65.535                       |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
|  long    |  32 bits, 4 bytes   |  signed   | -2.147.483.648, +2.147.483.647  | 0, +4.294.967.295                |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
|  float   |  4 bytes IEEE 754   |  signed   |                                 | 1.175494351E-38, 3.402823466E+38 |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+
| pointer  | 1, 2, 3 or 4 bytes  | generic   |                                 |                                  |
+----------+---------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------+

The compiler also allows inline assembler code to be embedded 
anywhere in a function. In addition, routines developed in 
assembly can also be called.

SDCC also provides an option (--cyclomatic) to report the 
relative complexity of a function. These functions can then be 
further optimized, or hand coded in assembly if needed. 

SDCC also comes with a companion source level debugger SDCDB. The 
debugger currently uses ucSim, a free open source simulator for 
8051 and other micro-controllers.

The latest SDCC version can be downloaded from [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/snap.php]
. Please note: the compiler will probably always be some steps 
ahead of this documentation[LaTeX Command: index][footnote:
Obviously this has pros and cons
].

  Open Source

All packages used in this compiler system are open source and 
freeware; source code for all the sub-packages (pre-processor, 
assemblers, linkers etc.) is distributed with the package. This 
documentation is maintained using a free open source word 
processor (LyX).
This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or 
modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License[LaTeX Command: index]
 as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2, 
or (at your option) any later version. This program is 
distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY 
WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty[LaTeX Command: index] 
of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the 
GNU General Public License for more details. You should have 
received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this 
program; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation, 59 Temple 
Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. In other words, 
you are welcome to use, share and improve this program. You are 
forbidden to forbid anyone else to use, share and improve what 
you give them. Help stamp out software-hoarding! 

  Typographic conventions[LaTeX Command: index]

Throughout this manual, we will use the following convention. 
Commands you have to type in are printed in "sans serif". Code 
samples are printed in typewriter font. Interesting items and new 
terms are printed in italic.

  Compatibility<sec:Compatibility-with-previous> with previous 
  versions[LaTeX Command: index]

Newer versions have usually numerous bug fixes compared with the 
previous version. But we also sometimes introduce some 
incompatibilities with older versions. Not just for the fun of 
it, but to make the compiler more stable, efficient and ANSI 
compliant[LaTeX Command: index] (see section [sub:ANSI-Compliance]
 for ANSI-Compliance). 


  short is now equivalent to int (16 bits), it used to be 
  equivalent to char (8 bits) which is not ANSI compliant. To 
  maintain compatibility, old programs may be compiled using the 
  --short-is-8bits commandline option (see [lyx:--short-is-8bits]
  ).

  the default directory for gcc-builds where include, library and 
  documentation files are stored is now in /usr/local/share.

  char type parameters to vararg[LaTeX Command: index] functions 
  are casted to int unless explicitly casted and --std-c89[LaTeX Command: index]
   and --std-c99[LaTeX Command: index] command line option are 
  not defined [margin:
 !
], e.g.: 
  char a=3;
  printf ("%d %c\n", a, (char)a);
 will push a as an int and as a char resp if --std-c89[LaTeX Command: index]
   and --std-c99[LaTeX Command: index] command line options are 
  not defined,
 will push a as two ints if --std-c89[LaTeX Command: index] or -
  -std-c99[LaTeX Command: index] command line option is defined.

  option --regextend has been removed.

  option --noregparms has been removed.

  option --stack-after-data has been removed.

  bit[LaTeX Command: index] and sbit[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
   types now consistently behave like the C99 _Bool type with 
  respect to type conversion[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
  . The most common incompatibility resulting from this change is 
  related to bit toggling[LaTeX Command: index] idioms, e.g.:
  bit b;
  b = ~[LaTeX Command: index]b; /* equivalent to b=1 instead of 
  toggling b */[margin:
 !
]
  b = !b; /* toggles b */
In previous versions, both forms would have toggled the bit.

<pending: more incompatibilities?>

  System Requirements

What do you need before you start installation of SDCC? A 
computer, and a desire to compute. The preferred method of 
installation is to compile SDCC from source using GNU gcc and 
make. For Windows some pre-compiled binary distributions are 
available for your convenience. You should have some experience 
with command line tools and compiler use.

  Other Resources

The SDCC home page at [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/] is a great 
place to find distribution sets. You can also find links to the 
user mailing lists that offer help or discuss SDCC with other 
SDCC users. Web links to other SDCC related sites can also be 
found here. This document can be found in the DOC directory of 
the source package as a text or HTML file. A pdf version of this 
document is available at [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/doc/sdccman.pdf]
. Some of the other tools (simulator and assembler) included with 
SDCC contain their own documentation and can be found in the 
source distribution. If you want the latest unreleased software, 
the complete source package is available directly from Subversion 
on https://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/svnroot/sdcc/trunk/sdcc.

  Wishes for the future

There are (and always will be) some things that could be done. 
Here are some I can think of:


char KernelFunction3(char p) at 0x340;


better code banking[LaTeX Command: index] support for mcs51

If you can think of some more, please see the section [sub:Requesting-Features]
 about filing feature requests[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
.


Installing SDCC[LaTeX Command: index]

For most users it is sufficient to skip to either section [sub:Building-SDCC-on-Linux]
 (Unix) or section [sub:Windows-Install] (Windows). More detailed 
instructions follow below.

  Configure Options[LaTeX Command: index]

The install paths, search paths and other options are defined 
when running 'configure'. The defaults can be overridden by:

--prefix see table below

--exec_prefix see table below

--bindir see table below

--datadir see table below

--datarootdir see table below


  docdir environment variable, see table below

  include_dir_suffix environment variable, see table below

  lib_dir_suffix environment variable, see table below

  sdccconf_h_dir_separator environment variable, either / or \\ 
makes sense here. This character will only be used in sdccconf.h; 
don't forget it's a C-header, therefore a double-backslash is 
needed there.


--disable-mcs51-port Excludes the Intel mcs51 port

--disable-gbz80-port Excludes the Gameboy gbz80 port

--disable-z80-port Excludes the z80 port

--disable-avr-port Excludes the AVR port

--disable-ds390-port Excludes the DS390 port

--disable-hc08-port Excludes the HC08 port

--disable-pic-port Excludes the PIC14 port

--disable-pic16-port Excludes the PIC16 port

--disable-xa51-port Excludes the XA51 port

--disable-ucsim Disables configuring and building of ucsim

--disable-device-lib Disables automatically building device 
libraries

--disable-packihx Disables building packihx


--enable-doc Build pdf, html and txt files from the lyx sources

--enable-libgc Use the Bohem memory allocator. Lower runtime 
footprint.

Furthermore the environment variables CC, CFLAGS, ... the tools 
and their arguments can be influenced. Please see `configure -
-help' and the man/info pages of `configure' for details.

The names of the standard libraries STD_LIB, STD_INT_LIB, 
STD_LONG_LIB, STD_FP_LIB, STD_DS390_LIB, STD_XA51_LIB and the 
environment variables SDCC_DIR_NAME, SDCC_INCLUDE_NAME, 
SDCC_LIB_NAME are defined by `configure' too. At the moment it's 
not possible to change the default settings (it was simply never 
required).

These configure options are compiled into the binaries, and can 
only be changed by rerunning 'configure' and recompiling SDCC. 
The configure options are written in italics to distinguish them 
from run time environment variables (see section search paths).

The settings for ”Win32 builds” are used by the SDCC team to 
build the official Win32 binaries. The SDCC team uses Mingw32 to 
build the official Windows binaries, because it's

  open source, 

  a gcc compiler and last but not least

  the binaries can be built by cross compiling on SDCC 
  Distributed Compile Farm.

See the examples, how to pass the Win32 settings to 'configure'. 
The other Win32 builds using Borland, VC or whatever don't use 
'configure', but a header file sdcc_vc_in.h is the same as 
sdccconf.h built by 'configure' for Win32.

These defaults are:



+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| Variable            | default                | Win32 builds     |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| PREFIX              | /usr/local             | \sdcc            |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| EXEC_PREFIX         | $PREFIX                | $PREFIX          |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| BINDIR              | $EXEC_PREFIX/bin       | $EXEC_PREFIX\bin |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| DATADIR             | $DATAROOTDIR           | $DATAROOTDIR     |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| DATAROOTDIR         | $PREFIX/share          | $PREFIX          |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| DOCDIR              | $DATAROOTDIR/sdcc/doc  | $DATAROOTDIR\doc |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| INCLUDE_DIR_SUFFIX  | sdcc/include           | include          |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+
| LIB_DIR_SUFFIX      | sdcc/lib               | lib              |
+---------------------+------------------------+------------------+



'configure' also computes relative paths. This is needed for full 
relocatability of a binary package and to complete search paths 
(see section search paths below):
 


+----------------------+-------------+--------------+
| Variable (computed)  | default     | Win32 builds |
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+
| BIN2DATA_DIR         | ../share    | ..           |
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+
| PREFIX2BIN_DIR       | bin         | bin          |
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+
| PREFIX2DATA_DIR      | share/sdcc  |              |
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+



Examples:

./configure
./configure --prefix=”/usr/bin” --datarootdir=”/usr/share”
./configure --disable-avr-port --disable-xa51-port

To cross compile on linux for Mingw32 (see also 
'sdcc/support/scripts/sdcc_mingw32'):

./configure \
CC=”i586-mingw32msvc-gcc” CXX=”i586-mingw32msvc-g++” \ 
RANLIB=”i586-mingw32msvc-ranlib” \
STRIP=”i586-mingw32msvc-strip” \
--prefix=”/sdcc” \
--datarootdir=”/sdcc” \
docdir=”\${datarootdir}/doc” \
include_dir_suffix=”include” \
lib_dir_suffix=”lib” \
sdccconf_h_dir_separator=”\\\\” \
--disable-device-lib\
--host=i586-mingw32msvc\
--build=unknown-unknown-linux-gnu

To ”cross”compile on Cygwin for Mingw32 (see also 
sdcc/support/scripts/sdcc_cygwin_mingw32):

./configure -C \
--prefix=”/sdcc” \
--datarootdir=”/sdcc” \
docdir=”\${datarootdir}/doc” \ 
include_dir_suffix=”include” \
lib_dir_suffix=”lib” \
sdccconf_h_dir_separator=”\\\\” \
CC=”gcc -mno-cygwin” \
CXX=”g++ -mno-cygwin” 

'configure' is quite slow on Cygwin (at least on windows before 
Win2000/XP). The option '--C' turns on caching, which gives a 
little bit extra speed. However if options are changed, it can be 
necessary to delete the config.cache file.

  Install paths<sub:Install-paths>[LaTeX Command: index]






+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------+
| Description     | Path                           | Default                        | Win32 builds  |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------+
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------+
| Binary files*   | $EXEC_PREFIX                   | /usr/local/bin                 | \sdcc\bin     |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------+
| Include files   | $DATADIR/ $INCLUDE_DIR_SUFFIX  | /usr/local/share/sdcc/include  | \sdcc\include |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------+
| Library file**  | $DATADIR/$LIB_DIR_SUFFIX       | /usr/local/share/sdcc/lib      | \sdcc\lib     |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------+
| Documentation   | $DOCDIR                        | /usr/local/share/sdcc/doc      | \sdcc\doc     |
+-----------------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------+


*compiler, preprocessor, assembler, and linker
**the model is auto-appended by the compiler, e.g. small, large, 
z80, ds390 etc

The install paths can still be changed during `make install' with 
e.g.:

make install prefix=$(HOME)/local/sdcc

Of course this doesn't change the search paths compiled into the 
binaries.

Moreover the install path can be changed by defining DESTDIR[LaTeX Command: index]
:

make install DESTDIR=$(HOME)/sdcc.rpm/

Please note that DESTDIR must have a trailing slash!

  Search Paths<sub:Search-Paths>[LaTeX Command: index]

Some search paths or parts of them are determined by configure 
variables (in italics, see section above). Further search paths 
are determined by environment variables during runtime. 
The paths searched when running the compiler are as follows (the 
first catch wins):

1. Binary files (preprocessor, assembler and linker)



+---------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+
| Search path                     | default          | Win32 builds    |
+---------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+
+---------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+
| $SDCC_HOME/$PPREFIX2BIN_DIR     | $SDCC_HOME/bin   | $SDCC_HOME\bin  |
+---------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+
| Path of argv[0] (if available)  | Path of argv[0]  | Path of argv[0] |
+---------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+
| $PATH                           | $PATH            | $PATH           |
+---------------------------------+------------------+-----------------+
 


2. Include files



+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| Search path                                        | default                                                                | Win32 builds             |
+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| --I dir                                            | --I dir                                                                | --I dir                  |
+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| $SDCC_INCLUDE                                      | $SDCC_INCLUDE                                                          | $SDCC_INCLUDE            |
+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| $SDCC_HOME/
$PREFIX2DATA_DIR/
$INCLUDE_DIR_SUFFIX  | $SDCC_ HOME/
share/sdcc/
include                                       | $SDCC_HOME\include       |
+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| path(argv[0])/
$BIN2DATADIR/
$INCLUDE_DIR_SUFFIX   | path(argv[0])/
../sdcc/include
                                        | path(argv[0])\..\include |
+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| $DATADIR/
$INCLUDE_DIR_SUFFIX                      | /usr/local/share/sdcc/
include                                         | (not on Win32)           |
+----------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
 


The option --nostdinc disables the last two search paths.

3. Library files 


With the exception of ”--L dir” the model is auto-appended by the 
compiler (e.g. small, large, z80, ds390 etc.). 



+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Search path                                            | default                                                                     | Win32 builds                                                      |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| --L dir                                                | --L dir                                                                     | --L dir                                                           |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| $SDCC_LIB/
<model>                                     | $SDCC_LIB/
<model>                                                          | $SDCC_LIB\
<model>                                                |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| $SDCC_HOME/
$PREFIX2DATA_DIR/
$LIB_DIR_SUFFIX/<model>  | $SDCC_HOME/
share/sdcc/
lib/<model>                                         | $SDCC_HOME\lib\
<model>                                           |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| path(argv[0])/
$BIN2DATADIR/
$LIB_DIR_SUFFIX/<model>   | path(argv[0])/
../sdcc/lib/<model>
                                         | path(argv[0])\
..\lib\<model>
                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| $DATADIR/
$LIB_DIR_SUFFIX/<model>                      | /usr/local/share/sdcc/
lib/<model>                                          | (not on Win32)                                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+





 
The option --nostdlib disables the last two search paths.

  Building SDCC[LaTeX Command: index]

  Building SDCC on Linux<sub:Building-SDCC-on-Linux>

  Download the source package either from the SDCC Subversion 
  repository or from snapshot builds, it will be named something 
  like sdcc-src-yyyymmdd-rrrr.tar.bz2 [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/snap.php]
  .

  Bring up a command line terminal, such as xterm.

  Unpack the file using a command like: "tar -xvzf 
  sdcc-src-yyyymmdd-rrrr.tar.bz2”, this will create a 
  sub-directory called sdcc with all of the sources.

  Change directory into the main SDCC directory, for example 
  type: "cd sdcc".

  Type "./configure". This configures the package for compilation 
  on your system.

  Type "make". All of the source packages will compile, this can 
  take a while.

  Type "make install" as root. This copies the binary 
  executables, the include files, the libraries and the 
  documentation to the install directories. Proceed with section [sec:Testing-the-SDCC]
  .

  Building SDCC on Mac OS X

Follow the instruction for Linux.

On Mac OS X 10.2.x it was reported, that the default gcc (version 
3.1 20020420 (prerelease)) fails to compile SDCC. Fortunately 
there's also gcc 2.9.x installed, which works fine. This compiler 
can be selected by running 'configure' with:

./configure CC=gcc2 CXX=g++2

Universal (ppc and i386) binaries can be produced on Mac OS X 
10.4.x with Xcode. Run 'configure' with:

./configure \

LDFLAGS="-Wl,-syslibroot,/Developer/SDKs/MacOSX10.4u.sdk -arch 
i386 -arch ppc" \

CXXFLAGS = "-O2 -isysroot /Developer/SDKs/MacOSX10.4u.sdk -arch 
i386 -arch ppc" \

CFLAGS = "-O2 -isysroot /Developer/SDKs/MacOSX10.4u.sdk -arch 
i386 -arch ppc"

  Cross compiling SDCC on Linux for Windows

With the Mingw32 gcc cross compiler it's easy to compile SDCC for 
Win32. See section 'Configure Options'.

  Building SDCC using Cygwin and Mingw32

For building and installing a Cygwin executable follow the 
instructions for Linux.

On Cygwin a ”native” Win32-binary can be built, which will not 
need the Cygwin-DLL. For the necessary 'configure' options see 
section 'configure options' or the script 
'sdcc/support/scripts/sdcc_cygwin_mingw32'.

In order to install Cygwin on Windows download setup.exe from [http://www.cygwin.com/||www.cygwin.com]
. Run it, set the ”default text file type” to ”unix” and 
download/install at least the following packages. Some packages 
are selected by default, others will be automatically selected 
because of dependencies with the manually selected packages. 
Never deselect these packages!

  flex

  bison

  gcc ; version 3.x is fine, no need to use the old 2.9x

  binutils ; selected with gcc

  make

  rxvt ; a nice console, which makes life much easier under 
  windoze (see below)

  man ; not really needed for building SDCC, but you'll miss it 
  sooner or later

  less ; not really needed for building SDCC, but you'll miss it 
  sooner or later

  svn ; only if you use Subversion access

If you want to develop something you'll need:

  python ; for the regression tests

  gdb ; the gnu debugger, together with the nice GUI ”insight”

  openssh ; to access the CF or commit changes

  autoconf and autoconf-devel ; if you want to fight with 
  'configure', don't use autoconf-stable!

rxvt is a nice console with history. Replace in your cygwin.bat 
the line

bash --login -i 

with (one line):

rxvt -sl 1000 -fn "Lucida Console-12" -sr -cr red

     -bg black -fg white -geometry 100x65 -e bash --login

Text selected with the mouse is automatically copied to the 
clipboard, pasting works with shift-insert.

The other good tip is to make sure you have no //c/-style paths 
anywhere, use /cygdrive/c/ instead. Using // invokes a network 
lookup which is very slow. If you think ”cygdrive” is too long, 
you can change it with e.g.

mount -s -u -c /mnt

SDCC sources use the unix line ending LF. Life is much easier, if 
you store the source tree on a drive which is mounted in binary 
mode. And use an editor which can handle LF-only line endings. 
Make sure not to commit files with windows line endings. The 
tabulator spacing[LaTeX Command: index] used in the project is 8. 
Although a tabulator spacing of 8 is a sensible choice for 
programmers (it's a power of 2 and allows to display 8/16 bit 
signed variables without loosing columns) the plan is to move 
towards using only spaces in the source.

  Building SDCC Using Microsoft Visual C++ 6.0/NET (MSVC)

Download the source package either from the SDCC Subversion 
repository or from the [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/snap.php||snapshot builds]
, it will be named something like sdcc-src-yyyymmdd-rrrr.tar.bz2. 
SDCC is distributed with all the projects, workspaces, and files 
you need to build it using Visual C++ 6.0/NET (except for SDCDB 
and ucSim). The workspace name is 'sdcc.dsw'. Please note that as 
it is now, all the executables are created in a folder called 
sdcc\bin_vc. Once built you need to copy the executables from 
sdcc\bin_vc to sdcc\bin before running SDCC. 

WARNING: Visual studio is very picky with line terminations; it 
expects the 0x0d, 0x0a DOS style line endings, not the 0x0a Unix 
style line endings. When using the Subversion repository it's 
easiest to configure the svn client to convert automatically for 
you. If however you are getting a message such as "This makefile 
was not generated by Developer Studio etc. etc.” when opening the 
sdcc.dsw workspace or any of the *.dsp projects, then you need to 
convert the Unix style line endings to DOS style line endings. To 
do so you can use the ”unix2dos” utility freely available on the 
internet. Doug Hawkins reported in the sdcc-user list that this 
works:

C:\Programming\SDCC> unix2dos sdcc.dsw
C:\Programming\SDCC> for /R %I in (*.dsp) do @unix2dos "%I"

In order to build SDCC with MSVC you need win32 executables of 
bison.exe, flex.exe, and gawk.exe. One good place to get them is [http://unxutils.sourceforge.net||here]


Download the file UnxUtils[LaTeX Command: index].zip. Now you 
have to install the utilities and setup MSVC so it can locate the 
required programs. Here there are two alternatives (choose one!):

  The easy way:

a) Extract UnxUtils.zip to your C:\ hard disk PRESERVING the 
  original paths, otherwise bison won't work. (If you are using 
  WinZip make certain that 'Use folder names' is selected)

b) In the Visual C++ IDE click Tools, Options, select the 
  Directory tab, in 'Show directories for:' select 'Executable 
  files', and in the directories window add a new path: 
  'C:\user\local\wbin', click ok.

(As a side effect, you get a bunch of Unix utilities that could 
  be useful, such as diff and patch.)

  A more compact way:

This one avoids extracting a bunch of files you may not use, but 
  requires some extra work:

a) Create a directory were to put the tools needed, or use a 
  directory already present. Say for example 'C:\util'.

b) Extract 'bison.exe', 'bison.hairy', 'bison.simple', 
  'flex.exe', and gawk.exe to such directory WITHOUT preserving 
  the original paths. (If you are using WinZip make certain that 
  'Use folder names' is not selected)

c) Rename bison.exe to '_bison.exe'.

d) Create a batch file 'bison.bat' in 'C:\util\' and add these 
  lines: 
  set BISON_SIMPLE=C:\util\bison.simple 
  set BISON_HAIRY=C:\util\bison.hairy
  _bison %1 %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 %7 %8 %9

Steps 'c' and 'd' are needed because bison requires by default 
  that the files 'bison.simple' and 'bison.hairy' reside in some 
  weird Unix directory, '/usr/local/share/' I think. So it is 
  necessary to tell bison where those files are located if they 
  are not in such directory. That is the function of the 
  environment variables BISON_SIMPLE and BISON_HAIRY.

e) In the Visual C++ IDE click Tools, Options, select the 
  Directory tab, in 'Show directories for:' select 'Executable 
  files', and in the directories window add a new path: 
  'c:\util', click ok. Note that you can use any other path 
  instead of 'c:\util', even the path where the Visual C++ tools 
  are, probably: 'C:\Program Files\Microsoft Visual 
  Studio\Common\Tools'. So you don't have to execute step 'e' :)

That is it. Open 'sdcc.dsw' in Visual Studio, click 'build all', 
when it finishes copy the executables from sdcc\bin_vc to 
sdcc\bin, and you can compile using SDCC.

  Building SDCC Using Borland

  From the sdcc directory, run the command "make -f 
  Makefile.bcc". This should regenerate all the .exe files in the 
  bin directory except for SDCDB and ucSim.

  If you modify any source files and need to rebuild, be aware 
  that the dependencies may not be correctly calculated. The 
  safest option is to delete all .obj files and run the build 
  again. From a Cygwin BASH prompt, this can easily be done with 
  the command (be sure you are in the sdcc directory):

find . \( -name '*.obj' -o -name '*.lib' -o -name '*.rul' \) 
  -print -exec rm {} \;

or on Windows NT/2000/XP from the command prompt with the 
  command:

del /s *.obj *.lib *.rul from the sdcc directory.

  Windows Install Using a ZIP Package

  Download the binary zip package from [http://sdcc.sf.net/snap.php]
   and unpack it using your favorite unpacking tool (gunzip, 
  WinZip, etc). This should unpack to a group of sub-directories. 
  An example directory structure after unpacking the mingw32 
  package is: c:\sdcc\bin for the executables, c:\sdcc\include 
  and c:\sdcc\lib for the include and libraries.

  Adjust your environment variable PATH to include the location 
  of the bin directory or start sdcc using the full path.

  Windows Install Using the Setup Program<sub:Windows-Install>

Download the setup program sdcc-x.y.z-setup.exe for an official 
release from 
[http://sf.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=599] or a setup 
program for one of the snapshots sdcc-yyyymmdd-xxxx-setup.exe 
from [http://sdcc.sf.net/snap.php] and execute it. A windows 
typical installer will guide you through the installation 
process.

  VPATH[LaTeX Command: index] feature

SDCC supports the VPATH feature provided by configure and make. 
It allows to separate the source and build trees. Here's an 
example:

cd ~                     # cd $HOME

tar -xzf sdcc.src.tar.gz # extract source to directory sdcc

mkdir sdcc.build         # put output in sdcc.build

cd sdcc.build

../sdcc/configure        # configure is doing all the magic!

make

That's it! configure will create the directory tree will all the 
necessary Makefiles in ~/sdcc.build. It automagically computes 
the variables srcdir, top_srcdir and top_buildir for each 
directory. After running make the generated files will be in 
~/sdcc.build, while the source files stay in ~/sdcc.
This is not only usefull for building different binaries, e.g. 
when cross compiling. It also gives you a much better overview in 
the source tree when all the generated files are not scattered 
between the source files. And the best thing is: if you want to 
change a file you can leave the original file untouched in the 
source directory. Simply copy it to the build directory, edit it, 
enter `make clean', `rm Makefile.dep' and `make'. make will do 
the rest for you!

  Building the Documentation

Add --enable-doc to the configure arguments to build the 
documentation together with all the other stuff. You will need 
several tools (LyX, LaTeX, LaTeX2HTML, pdflatex, dvipdf, dvips 
and makeindex) to get the job done. Another possibility is to 
change to the doc directory and to type ”make” there. You're 
invited to make changes and additions to this manual 
(sdcc/doc/sdccman.lyx). Using LyX [http://www.lyx.org] as editor 
is straightforward. Prebuilt documentation in html and pdf format 
is available from [http://sdcc.sf.net/snap.php].

  Reading the Documentation[LaTeX Command: index]

Currently reading the document in pdf format is recommended, as 
for unknown reason the hyperlinks are working there whereas in 
the html version they are not[footnote:
If you should know why please drop us a note
]. 
You'll find the pdf version[LaTeX Command: index] at [http://sdcc.sf.net/doc/sdccman.pdf]
. 
A html version[LaTeX Command: index] should be online at [http://sdcc.sf.net/doc/sdccman.html/index.html]
.
This documentation is in some aspects different from a commercial 
documentation: 

  It tries to document SDCC for several processor architectures 
  in one document (commercially these probably would be separate 
  documents/products). This document[LaTeX Command: index] 
  currently matches SDCC for mcs51 and DS390 best and does give 
  too few information about f.e. Z80, PIC14, PIC16 and HC08.

  There are many references pointing away from this 
  documentation. Don't let this distract you. If there f.e. was a 
  reference like [http://www.opencores.org] together with a 
  statement ”some processors which are targetted by SDCC can be 
  implemented in a field programmable gate array[LaTeX Command: index]
  ” or [http://sf.net/projects/fpgac][LaTeX Command: index] ”have 
  you ever heard of an open source compiler that compiles a 
  subset of C for an FPGA?” we expect you to have a quick look 
  there and come back. If you read this you are on the right 
  track.

  Some sections attribute more space to problems, restrictions 
  and warnings than to the solution.

  The installation section and the section about the debugger is 
  intimidating.

  There are still lots of typos and there are more different 
  writing styles than pictures.

  Testing the SDCC Compiler<sec:Testing-the-SDCC>

The first thing you should do after installing your SDCC compiler 
is to see if it runs. Type "sdcc --version"[LaTeX Command: index] 
at the prompt, and the program should run and output its version 
like: 
SDCC : mcs51/z80/avr/ds390/pic16/pic14/ds400/hc08 2.5.6 #4169 
(May 8 2006) (UNIX)

If it doesn't run, or gives a message about not finding sdcc 
program, then you need to check over your installation. Make sure 
that the sdcc bin directory is in your executable search path 
defined by the PATH environment setting (see section [sub:Install-Trouble-shooting]
 Install trouble-shooting for suggestions). Make sure that the 
sdcc program is in the bin folder, if not perhaps something did 
not install correctly.

SDCC is commonly installed as described in section ”Install and 
search paths”.

Make sure the compiler works on a very simple example. Type in 
the following test.c program using your favorite ASCII editor:

char test;

void main(void) {
    test=0;
}

Compile this using the following command: "sdcc -c test.c". If 
all goes well, the compiler will generate a test.asm and test.rel 
file. Congratulations, you've just compiled your first program 
with SDCC. We used the -c option to tell SDCC not to link the 
generated code, just to keep things simple for this step.

The next step is to try it with the linker. Type in "sdcc 
test.c". If all goes well the compiler will link with the 
libraries and produce a test.ihx output file. If this step fails 
(no test.ihx, and the linker generates warnings), then the 
problem is most likely that SDCC cannot find the 
/usr/local/share/sdcc/lib directory (see section [sub:Install-Trouble-shooting]
 Install trouble-shooting for suggestions).

The final test is to ensure SDCC can use the standard header 
files and libraries. Edit test.c and change it to the following:

#include <string.h>

char str1[10];

void main(void) {
  strcpy(str1, "testing");
}

Compile this by typing "sdcc test.c". This should generate a 
test.ihx output file, and it should give no warnings such as not 
finding the string.h file. If it cannot find the string.h file, 
then the problem is that SDCC cannot find the 
/usr/local/share/sdcc/include directory (see the section [sub:Install-Trouble-shooting]
 Install trouble-shooting section for suggestions). Use option -
-print-search-dirs[LaTeX Command: index] to find exactly where 
SDCC is looking for the include and lib files.

  Install Trouble-shooting<sub:Install-Trouble-shooting>[LaTeX Command: index]

  If SDCC does not build correctly

A thing to try is starting from scratch by unpacking the .tgz 
source package again in an empty directory. Configure it like:

./configure 2>&1 | tee configure.log

and build it like:

make 2>&1 | tee make.log

If anything goes wrong, you can review the log files to locate 
the problem. Or a relevant part of this can be attached to an 
email that could be helpful when requesting help from the mailing 
list.

  What the ”./configure” does

The ”./configure” command is a script that analyzes your system 
and performs some configuration to ensure the source package 
compiles on your system. It will take a few minutes to run, and 
will compile a few tests to determine what compiler features are 
installed.

  What the ”make” does

This runs the GNU make tool, which automatically compiles all the 
source packages into the final installed binary executables.

  What the ”make install” command does.

This will install the compiler, other executables libraries and 
include files into the appropriate directories. See sections [sub:Install-paths]
, [sub:Search-Paths] about install and search paths.
On most systems you will need super-user privileges to do this.

  Components of SDCC

SDCC is not just a compiler, but a collection of tools by various 
developers. These include linkers, assemblers, simulators and 
other components. Here is a summary of some of the components. 
Note that the included simulator and assembler have separate 
documentation which you can find in the source package in their 
respective directories. As SDCC grows to include support for 
other processors, other packages from various developers are 
included and may have their own sets of documentation.

You might want to look at the files which are installed in 
<installdir>. At the time of this writing, we find the following 
programs for gcc-builds:
 
In <installdir>/bin:

  sdcc - The compiler.

  sdcpp - The C preprocessor.

  asx8051 - The assembler for 8051 type processors.

  as-z80, as-gbz80 - The Z80 and GameBoy Z80 assemblers.

  aslink -The linker for 8051 type processors.

  link-z80, link-gbz80 - The Z80 and GameBoy Z80 linkers.

  s51 - The ucSim 8051 simulator.

  sdcdb - The source debugger.

  packihx - A tool to pack (compress) Intel hex files.

In <installdir>/share/sdcc/include

  the include files

In <installdir>/share/sdcc/lib

  the subdirs src and small, large, z80, gbz80 and ds390 with the 
  precompiled relocatables.

In <installdir>/share/sdcc/doc

  the documentation

As development for other processors proceeds, this list will 
expand to include executables to support processors like AVR, 
PIC, etc.

  sdcc - The Compiler

This is the actual compiler, it in turn uses the c-preprocessor 
and invokes the assembler and linkage editor.

  sdcpp - The C-Preprocessor

The preprocessor[LaTeX Command: index] is a modified version of 
the GNU cpp[LaTeX Command: index] preprocessor [http://gcc.gnu.org/]
. The C preprocessor is used to pull in #include sources, process 
#ifdef statements, #defines and so on.

  asxxxx, aslink, link-xxx - The Assemblers and Linkage Editors

This is retargettable assembler & linkage editor, it was 
developed by Alan Baldwin. John Hartman created the version for 
8051, and I (Sandeep) have made some enhancements and bug fixes 
for it to work properly with SDCC.

  s51 - The Simulator

S51[LaTeX Command: index] is a free open source simulator 
developed by Daniel Drotos. The simulator is built as part of the 
build process. For more information visit Daniel's web site at: [http://mazsola.iit.uni-miskolc.hu/~drdani/embedded/s51]
. It currently supports the core mcs51, the Dallas DS80C390 and 
the Phillips XA51 family.

  sdcdb - Source Level Debugger

SDCDB[LaTeX Command: index] is the companion source level 
debugger. More about SDCDB in section [cha:Debugging-with-SDCDB]. 
The current version of the debugger uses Daniel's Simulator S51[LaTeX Command: index]
, but can be easily changed to use other simulators.

Using SDCC

  Compiling

  Single Source File Projects

For single source file 8051 projects the process is very simple. 
Compile your programs with the following command "sdcc 
sourcefile.c". This will compile, assemble and link your source 
file. Output files are as follows:

  sourcefile.asm[LaTeX Command: index] - Assembler source[LaTeX Command: index]
   file created by the compiler

  sourcefile.lst[LaTeX Command: index] - Assembler listing[LaTeX Command: index]
   file created by the Assembler

  sourcefile.rst[LaTeX Command: index] - Assembler listing[LaTeX Command: index]
   file updated with linkedit information, created by linkage 
  editor

  sourcefile.sym[LaTeX Command: index] - symbol listing[LaTeX Command: index]
   for the sourcefile, created by the assembler

  sourcefile.rel[LaTeX Command: index] or sourcefile.o[LaTeX Command: index]
   - Object file[LaTeX Command: index] created by the assembler, 
  input to Linkage editor

  sourcefile.map[LaTeX Command: index] - The memory map[LaTeX Command: index]
   for the load module, created by the Linker

  sourcefile.mem[LaTeX Command: index] - A file with a summary of 
  the memory usage

  sourcefile.ihx[LaTeX Command: index] - The load module in Intel 
  hex format[LaTeX Command: index] (you can select the Motorola 
  S19 format[LaTeX Command: index] with --out-fmt-s19[LaTeX Command: index]
  . If you need another format you might want to use objdump[LaTeX Command: index]
   or srecord[LaTeX Command: index] - see also section [sub:Postprocessing-the-Intel]
  ). Both formats are documented in the documentation of srecord[LaTeX Command: index]

  sourcefile.adb[LaTeX Command: index] - An intermediate file 
  containing debug information needed to create the .cdb file 
  (with --debug[LaTeX Command: index]) 

  sourcefile.cdb[LaTeX Command: index] - An optional file (with -
  -debug) containing debug information. The format is documented 
  in cdbfileformat.pdf

  sourcefile. - (no extension)[LaTeX Command: index] An optional 
  AOMF or AOMF51[LaTeX Command: index] <OMF file>file containing 
  debug information (generated with option --debug). The (Intel) 
  absolute object module format is a subformat of the OMF51 
  format and is commonly used by third party tools (debuggers[LaTeX Command: index]
  , simulators, emulators).

  sourcefile.dump*[LaTeX Command: index] - Dump file to debug the 
  compiler it self (generated with option --dumpall) (see section 
  [sub:Intermediate-Dump-Options]  and section [sub:The-anatomy-of]
   ”Anatomy of the compiler”).

  Postprocessing the Intel Hex[LaTeX Command: index] file<sub:Postprocessing-the-Intel>

In most cases this won't be needed but the Intel Hex file[LaTeX Command: index]
 which is generated by SDCC might include lines of varying length 
and the addresses within the file are not guaranteed to be 
strictly ascending. If your toolchain or a bootloader does not 
like this you can use the tool packihx[LaTeX Command: index] 
which is part of the SDCC distribution: 

 packihx sourcefile.ihx >sourcefile.hex

The separately available srecord[LaTeX Command: index] package 
additionally allows to set undefined locations to a predefined 
value, to insert checksums[LaTeX Command: index] of various 
flavours (crc, add, xor) and to perform other manipulations 
(convert, split, crop, offset, ...). 

srec_cat  sourcefile.ihx -intel  -o sourcefile.hex -intel

An example for a more complex command line[footnote:
the command backfills[LaTeX Command: index] unused memory with 
0x12 and the overall 16 bit sum of the complete 64 kByte block is 
zero. If the program counter on an mcs51 runs wild the backfill 
pattern 0x12 will be interpreted as an lcall to address 0x1212 
(where an emergency routine could sit).
] could look like:

srec_cat sourcefile.ihx -intel  -fill 0x12 0x0000 0xfffe 
-little-endian-checksum-negative 0xfffe 0x02 0x02  -o 
sourcefile.hex -intel

The srecord package is available at [http://sf.net/projects/srecord]
 .

  Projects with Multiple Source Files

SDCC can compile only ONE file at a time. Let us for example 
assume that you have a project containing the following files:

foo1.c (contains some functions)
foo2.c (contains some more functions)
foomain.c (contains more functions and the function main)

The first two files will need to be compiled separately with the 
commands: 

sdcc -c foo1.c
sdcc -c foo2.c

Then compile the source file containing the main() function and 
link[LaTeX Command: index] the files together with the following 
command: 

sdcc foomain.c foo1.rel foo2.rel[LaTeX Command: index]

Alternatively, foomain.c can be separately compiled as well: 

sdcc -c foomain.c
sdcc foomain.rel foo1.rel foo2.rel

The file containing the main() function must be the first file 
specified in the command line, since the linkage editor processes 
file in the order they are presented to it. The linker is invoked 
from SDCC using a script file with extension .lnk[LaTeX Command: index]
. You can view this file to troubleshoot linking problems such as 
those arising from missing libraries.

  Projects with Additional Libraries[LaTeX Command: index]

Some reusable routines may be compiled into a library, see the 
documentation for the assembler and linkage editor (which are in 
<installdir>/share/sdcc/doc) for how to create a .lib[LaTeX Command: index]
 library file. Libraries created in this manner can be included 
in the command line. Make sure you include the -L <library-path> 
option to tell the linker where to look for these files if they 
are not in the current directory. Here is an example, assuming 
you have the source file foomain.c and a library foolib.lib in 
the directory mylib (if that is not the same as your current 
project):

sdcc foomain.c foolib.lib -L mylib

Note here that mylib must be an absolute path name.

The most efficient way to use libraries is to keep separate 
modules in separate source files. The lib file now should name 
all the modules.rel[LaTeX Command: index] files. For an example 
see the standard library file libsdcc.lib in the directory 
<installdir>/share/lib/small.

  Using sdcclib to Create and Manage Libraries[LaTeX Command: index]

Alternatively, instead of having a .rel file for each entry on 
the library file as described in the preceding section, sdcclib 
can be used to embed all the modules belonging to such library in 
the library file itself. This results in a larger library file, 
but it greatly reduces the number of disk files accessed by the 
linker.  Additionally, the packed library file contains an index 
of all include modules and symbols that significantly speeds up 
the linking process. To display a list of options supported by 
sdcclib type:


sdcclib -?[LaTeX Command: index]

To create a new library file, start by compiling all the required 
modules. For example:


sdcc -c _divsint.c

sdcc -c _divuint.c

sdcc -c _modsint.c

sdcc -c _moduint.c

sdcc -c _mulint.c


This will create files _divsint.rel, _divuint.rel, _modsint.rel, 
_moduint.rel, and _mulint.rel. The next step is to add the .rel 
files to the library file:


sdcclib libint.lib _divsint.rel[LaTeX Command: index]

sdcclib libint.lib _divuint.rel

sdcclib libint.lib _modsint.rel

sdcclib libint.lib _moduint.rel

sdcclib libint.lib _mulint.rel


Or, if you preffer:


sdcclib libint.lib _divsint.rel _divuint.rel _modsint.rel 
_moduint.rel _mulint.rel


If the file already exists in the library, it will be replaced. 
If a list of .rel files is available, you can tell sdcclib to add 
those files to a library. For example, if the file 
'myliblist.txt' contains


_divsint.rel

_divuint.rel

_modsint.rel

_moduint.rel

_mulint.rel


Use


sdcclib -l libint.lib myliblist.txt


Additionally, you can instruct sdcclib to compiles the files 
before adding them to the library. This is achieved using the 
environment variables SDCCLIB_CC and/or SDCCLIB_AS. For example:


set SDCCLIB_CC=sdcc -c

sdcclib -l libint.lib myliblist.txt


To see what modules and symbols are included in the library, 
options -s and -m are available. For example:

sdcclib -s libint.lib[LaTeX Command: index]
_divsint.rel:

__divsint_a_1_1

__divsint_PARM_2

__divsint
_divuint.rel:

__divuint_a_1_1

__divuint_PARM_2

__divuint_reste_1_1

__divuint_count_1_1

__divuint
_modsint.rel:

__modsint_a_1_1

__modsint_PARM_2

__modsint
_moduint.rel:

__moduint_a_1_1

__moduint_PARM_2

__moduint_count_1_1

__moduint
_mulint.rel:

__mulint_PARM_2

__mulint


If the source files are compiled using --debug[LaTeX Command: index]
, the corresponding debug information file .adb will be include 
in the library file as well. The library files created with 
sdcclib are plain text files, so they can be viewed with a text 
editor. It is not recomended to modify a library file created 
with sdcclib using a text editor, as there are file indexes 
numbers located accross the file used by the linker to quickly 
locate the required module to link. Once a .rel file (as well as 
a .adb file) is added to a library using sdcclib, it can be 
safely deleted, since all the information required for linking is 
embedded in the library file itself. Library files created using 
sdcclib are used as described in the preceding sections.



  Command Line Options[LaTeX Command: index]<sec:Command-Line-Options>

  Processor Selection Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

-mmcs51[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Intel MCS51[LaTeX Command: index]
 family of processors. This is the default processor target.

-mds390[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Dallas 
DS80C390[LaTeX Command: index] processor.

-mds400[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Dallas 
DS80C400[LaTeX Command: index] processor.

-mhc08[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the 
Freescale/Motorola HC08[LaTeX Command: index] family of 
processors.

-mz80[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Zilog Z80[LaTeX Command: index]
 family of processors.

-mgbz80[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the GameBoy Z80[LaTeX Command: index]
 processor (Not actively maintained).

-mavr[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Atmel AVR[LaTeX Command: index]
 processor (Not maintained, not complete). AVR users should 
probably have a look at winavr [http://sourceforge.net/projects/winavr]
 or [http://www.avrfreaks.net/index.php?name=PNphpBB2&file=index]
, which is based on AVR-port of the gcc compiler.



-mpic14[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Microchip PIC 
14[LaTeX Command: index]-bit processors (p16f84 and variants. In 
development, not complete).



-mpic16[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Microchip PIC 
16[LaTeX Command: index]-bit processors (p18f452 and variants. In 
development, not complete).

-mtlcs900h Generate code for the Toshiba TLCS-900H[LaTeX Command: index]
 processor (Not maintained, not complete).

-mxa51[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the Phillips XA51[LaTeX Command: index]
 processor (Not maintained, not complete).





  Preprocessor Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
  [LaTeX Command: index]

-I<path>[LaTeX Command: index] The additional location where the 
preprocessor will look for <..h> or “..h” files.

-D<macro[=value]>[LaTeX Command: index] Command line definition 
of macros. Passed to the preprocessor.

-M[LaTeX Command: index] Tell the preprocessor to output a rule 
suitable for make describing the dependencies of each object 
file. For each source file, the preprocessor outputs one 
make-rule whose target is the object file name for that source 
file and whose dependencies are all the files `#include'd in it. 
This rule may be a single line or may be continued with 
`\'-newline if it is long. The list of rules is printed on 
standard output instead of the preprocessed C program. `-M' 
implies `-E[LaTeX Command: index]'.

-C[LaTeX Command: index] Tell the preprocessor not to discard 
comments. Used with the `-E' option.

-MM[LaTeX Command: index] Like `-M' but the output mentions only 
the user header files included with `#include “file"'. System 
header files included with `#include <file>' are omitted.

-Aquestion(answer)[LaTeX Command: index] Assert the answer answer 
for question, in case it is tested with a preprocessor 
conditional such as `#if #question(answer)'. `-A-' disables the 
standard assertions that normally describe the target machine.

-Umacro[LaTeX Command: index] Undefine macro macro. `-U' options 
are evaluated after all `-D' options, but before any `-include' 
and `-imacros' options.

-dM[LaTeX Command: index] Tell the preprocessor to output only a 
list of the macro definitions that are in effect at the end of 
preprocessing. Used with the `-E' option.

-dD[LaTeX Command: index] Tell the preprocessor to pass all macro 
definitions into the output, in their proper sequence in the rest 
of the output.

-dN[LaTeX Command: index] Like `-dD' except that the macro 
arguments and contents are omitted. Only `#define name' is 
included in the output.

-pedantic-parse-number[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
<lyx:-pedantic-parse-number> Pedantic parse numbers so that 
situations like 0xfe-LO_B(3) are parsed properly and the macro 
LO_B(3) gets expanded. See also #pragma pedantic_parse_number [ite:pedantic_parse_number]
 in section[sec:Pragmas] Note: this functionality is not in 
conformance with C99 standard!

-Wp preprocessorOption[,preprocessorOption][LaTeX Command: index]
... Pass the preprocessorOption to the preprocessor sdcpp[LaTeX Command: index]
. SDCC uses an adapted version of the preprocessor cpp of the GNU 
Compiler Collection[LaTeX Command: index] (gcc [http://gcc.gnu.org/]
), if you need more dedicated options please refer to the GCC 
4.1.1 CPP Manual at [http://www.gnu.org/software/gcc/onlinedocs/]
.





  Linker Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

-L --lib-path[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
<absolute path to additional libraries> This option is passed to 
the linkage editor's additional libraries[LaTeX Command: index] 
search path. The path name must be absolute. Additional library 
files may be specified in the command line. See section Compiling 
programs for more details.

--xram-loc[LaTeX Command: index] <Value> The start location of 
the external ram[LaTeX Command: index], default value is 0. The 
value entered can be in Hexadecimal or Decimal format, e.g.: -
-xram-loc 0x8000 or --xram-loc 32768.

--code-loc[LaTeX Command: index] <Value> The start location of 
the code[LaTeX Command: index] segment, default value 0. Note 
when this option is used the interrupt vector table[LaTeX Command: index]
 is also relocated to the given address. The value entered can be 
in Hexadecimal or Decimal format, e.g.: --code-loc 0x8000 or -
-code-loc 32768.

--stack-loc[LaTeX Command: index] <Value> By default the stack[LaTeX Command: index]
 is placed after the data segment. Using this option the stack 
can be placed anywhere in the internal memory space of the 8051. 
The value entered can be in Hexadecimal or Decimal format, e.g. -
-stack-loc 0x20 or --stack-loc 32. Since the sp register is 
incremented before a push or call, the initial sp will be set to 
one byte prior the provided value. The provided value should not 
overlap any other memory areas such as used register banks or the 
data segment and with enough space for the current application. 
The --pack-iram [LaTeX Command: index] option (which is now a 
default setting) will override this setting, so you should also 
specify the --no-pack-iram [LaTeX Command: index] option if you 
need to manually place the stack.

--xstack-loc[LaTeX Command: index] <Value> By default the 
external stack[LaTeX Command: index] is placed after the pdata[LaTeX Command: index]
 segment. Using this option the xstack can be placed anywhere in 
the external memory space of the 8051. The value entered can be 
in Hexadecimal or Decimal format, e.g. --xstack-loc 0x8000 or -
-stack-loc 32768. The provided value should not overlap any other 
memory areas such as the pdata or xdata segment and with enough 
space for the current application.

--data-loc[LaTeX Command: index] <Value> The start location of 
the internal ram data[LaTeX Command: index] segment. The value 
entered can be in Hexadecimal or Decimal format, eg. --data-loc 
0x20 or --data-loc 32. (By default, the start location of the 
internal ram data segment  is set as low as possible in memory, 
taking into account the used register banks and the bit segment 
at address 0x20. For example if register banks 0 and 1 are used 
without bit variables, the data segment will be set, if -
-data-loc is not used, to location 0x10.)

--idata-loc[LaTeX Command: index] <Value> The start location of 
the indirectly addressable internal ram[LaTeX Command: index] of 
the 8051, default value is 0x80. The value entered can be in 
Hexadecimal or Decimal format, eg. --idata-loc 0x88 or -
-idata-loc 136.

--bit-loc <Value> The start location of the bit[LaTeX Command: index]
 addressable internal ram of the 8051. This is not implemented 
yet. Instead an option can be passed directly to the linker: -Wl 
-bBSEG=<Value>.

--out-fmt-ihx[LaTeX Command: index] The linker output (final 
object code) is in Intel Hex format.[LaTeX Command: index] This 
is the default option. The format itself is documented in the 
documentation of srecord[LaTeX Command: index].

--out-fmt-s19[LaTeX Command: index] The linker output (final 
object code) is in Motorola S19 format[LaTeX Command: index]. The 
format itself is documented in the documentation of srecord.

--out-fmt-elf[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] The 
linker output (final object code) is in ELF format[LaTeX Command: index]
. (Currently only supported for the HC08[LaTeX Command: index] 
processors)

-Wl linkOption[,linkOption][LaTeX Command: index]<lyx:-Wl option>
... Pass the linkOption to the linker. If a bootloader is used an 
option like ”-Wl -bCSEG=0x1000” would be typical to set the start 
of the code segment. Either use the double quotes around this 
option or use no space (e.g. -Wl-bCSEG=0x1000). See also #pragma 
constseg and #pragma codeseg in section [sec:Pragmas] . File 
sdcc/as/doc/asxhtm.html has more on linker options.





  MCS51 Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

--model-small[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for Small Model 
programs, see section Memory Models for more details. This is the 
default model.

--model-medium[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for Medium 
model programs, see section Memory Models for more details. If 
this option is used all source files in the project have to be 
compiled with this option. It must also be used when invoking the 
linker.

--model-large[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for Large model 
programs, see section Memory Models for more details. If this 
option is used all source files in the project have to be 
compiled with this option. It must also be used when invoking the 
linker.

--xstack[LaTeX Command: index] Uses a pseudo stack in the pdata[LaTeX Command: index]
 area (usually the first 256 bytes in the external ram) for 
allocating variables and passing parameters. See section [sub:External-Stack]
  External Stack for more details.

--iram-size <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Causes the linker to 
check if the internal ram usage is within limits of the given 
value.

--xram-size <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Causes the linker to 
check if the external ram usage is within limits of the given 
value.

--code-size <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Causes the linker to 
check if the code memory usage is within limits of the given 
value.

--stack-size <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Causes the linker to 
check if there is at minimum <Value> bytes for stack.

--pack-iram [LaTeX Command: index] Causes the linker to use 
unused register banks for data variables and pack data, idata and 
stack together. This is the default now.

--no-pack-iram [LaTeX Command: index] Causes the linker to use 
old style for allocating memory areas.

--acall-ajmp [LaTeX Command: index] Replaces the three byte 
instructions lcall/ljmp with the two byte instructions 
acall/ajmp. Only use this option if your code is in the same 2k 
block of memory. You may need to use this option for some 8051 
derivatives which lack the lcall/ljmp instructions..





  DS390 / DS400 Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

--model-flat24[LaTeX Command: index] Generate 24-bit flat mode 
code. This is the one and only that the ds390 code generator 
supports right now and is default when using -mds390. See section 
Memory Models for more details.

--protect-sp-update[LaTeX Command: index] disable interrupts 
during ESP:SP updates.

--stack-10bit[LaTeX Command: index] Generate code for the 10 bit 
stack mode of the Dallas DS80C390 part. This is the one and only 
that the ds390 code generator supports right now and is default 
when using -mds390. In this mode, the stack is located in the 
lower 1K of the internal RAM, which is mapped to 0x400000. Note 
that the support is incomplete, since it still uses a single byte 
as the stack pointer. This means that only the lower 256 bytes of 
the potential 1K stack space will actually be used. However, this 
does allow you to reclaim the precious 256 bytes of low RAM for 
use for the DATA and IDATA segments. The compiler will not 
generate any code to put the processor into 10 bit stack mode. It 
is important to ensure that the processor is in this mode before 
calling any re-entrant functions compiled with this option. In 
principle, this should work with the --stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index]
 option, but that has not been tested. It is incompatible with 
the --xstack[LaTeX Command: index] option. It also only makes 
sense if the processor is in 24 bit contiguous addressing mode 
(see the --model-flat24 option).

--stack-probe[LaTeX Command: index] insert call to function 
__stack_probe at each function prologue.

--tini-libid[LaTeX Command: index] <nnnn> LibraryID used in 
-mTININative. 

--use-accelerator[LaTeX Command: index] generate code for DS390 
Arithmetic Accelerator. 





  Z80 Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

--callee-saves-bc[LaTeX Command: index] Force a called function 
to always save BC.

--no-std-crt0[LaTeX Command: index] When linking, skip the 
standard crt0.o object file. You must provide your own crt0.o for 
your system when linking.

--portmode=<Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Determinate PORT I/O 
mode (<Value> is z80 or z180).

--asm=<Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Define assembler name 
(<Value> is rgbds, asxxxx, isas or z80asm).

--codeseg <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Use <Value> for the code 
segment name.

--constseg <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Use <Value> for the 
const segment name.





  GBZ80 Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

--callee-saves-bc[LaTeX Command: index] Force a called function 
to always save BC.

--no-std-crt0[LaTeX Command: index] When linking, skip the 
standard crt0.o object file. You must provide your own crt0.o for 
your system when linking.

-bo <Num>[LaTeX Command: index] Use code bank <Num>.

-ba <Num>[LaTeX Command: index] Use data bank <Num>.

--codeseg <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Use <Value> for the code 
segment name.

--constseg <Value>[LaTeX Command: index] Use <Value> for the 
const segment name.





  Optimization Options[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

--nogcse[LaTeX Command: index] Will not do global subexpression 
elimination, this option may be used when the compiler creates 
undesirably large stack/data spaces to store compiler temporaries 
(spill locations, sloc[LaTeX Command: index]). A warning message 
will be generated when this happens and the compiler will 
indicate the number of extra bytes it allocated. It is 
recommended that this option NOT be used, #pragma nogcse[LaTeX Command: index]
 can be used to turn off global subexpression elimination[LaTeX Command: index]
 for a given function only.

--noinvariant[LaTeX Command: index] Will not do loop invariant 
optimizations, this may be turned off for reasons explained for 
the previous option. For more details of loop optimizations 
performed see Loop Invariants in section [sub:Loop-Optimizations]
. It is recommended that this option NOT be used, #pragma 
noinvariant[LaTeX Command: index] can be used to turn off 
invariant optimizations for a given function only.

--noinduction[LaTeX Command: index] Will not do loop induction 
optimizations, see section strength reduction for more details. 
It is recommended that this option is NOT used, #pragma 
noinduction[LaTeX Command: index] can be used to turn off 
induction optimizations for a given function only.

--nojtbound[LaTeX Command: index]  Will not generate boundary 
condition check when switch statements[LaTeX Command: index] are 
implemented using jump-tables. See section [sub:'switch'-Statements]
 Switch Statements for more details. It is recommended that this 
option is NOT used, #pragma nojtbound[LaTeX Command: index] can 
be used to turn off boundary checking for jump tables for a given 
function only.

--noloopreverse[LaTeX Command: index] Will not do loop reversal [LaTeX Command: index]
optimization.

--nolabelopt [LaTeX Command: index]Will not optimize labels 
(makes the dumpfiles more readable).

--no-xinit-opt[LaTeX Command: index] Will not memcpy initialized 
data from code space into xdata space. This saves a few bytes in 
code space if you don't have initialized data[LaTeX Command: index]
.

--nooverlay[LaTeX Command: index]  The compiler will not overlay 
parameters and local variables of any function, see section 
Parameters and local variables for more details.

--no-peep[LaTeX Command: index] Disable peep-hole optimization 
with built-in rules.

--peep-file[LaTeX Command: index] <filename> This option can be 
used to use additional rules to be used by the peep hole 
optimizer. See section [sub:Peephole-Optimizer] Peep Hole 
optimizations for details on how to write these rules.

--peep-asm[LaTeX Command: index] Pass the inline assembler code 
through the peep hole optimizer. This can cause unexpected 
changes to inline assembler code, please go through the peephole 
optimizer[LaTeX Command: index] rules defined in the source file 
tree '<target>/peeph.def' before using this option.

--opt-code-speed[LaTeX Command: index] The compiler will optimize 
code generation towards fast code, possibly at the expense of 
code size.

--opt-code-size[LaTeX Command: index] The compiler will optimize 
code generation towards compact code, possibly at the expense of 
code speed.





  Other Options[LaTeX Command: index]

-c --compile-only[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
will compile and assemble the source, but will not call the 
linkage editor.

--c1mode[LaTeX Command: index] reads the preprocessed source from 
standard input and compiles it. The file name for the assembler 
output must be specified using the -o option.

-E[LaTeX Command: index] Run only the C preprocessor. Preprocess 
all the C source files specified and output the results to 
standard output.

-o <path/file>[LaTeX Command: index] The output path where 
everything will be placed or the file name used for all generated 
output files. If the parameter is a path, it must have a trailing 
slash (or backslash for the Windows binaries) to be recognized as 
a path. Note for Windows users: if the path contains spaces, it 
should be surrounded by quotes. The trailing backslash should be 
doubled in order to prevent escaping the final quote, for 
example: -o ”F:\Projects\test3\output 1\\” or put after the final 
quote, for example: -o ”F:\Projects\test3\output 1”\. The path 
using slashes for directory delimiters can be used too, for 
example: -o ”F:/Projects/test3/output 1/”.

--stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index] All functions in the source 
file will be compiled as reentrant[LaTeX Command: index], i.e. 
the parameters and local variables will be allocated on the stack[LaTeX Command: index]
. See section [sec:Parameters-and-Local-Variables] Parameters and 
Local Variables for more details. If this option is used all 
source files in the project should be compiled with this option. 
It automatically implies --int-long-reent and --float-reent. 

--callee-saves[LaTeX Command: index] <lyx:--callee-saves-function1[,function2][,function3]...>
function1[,function2][,function3].... The compiler by default 
uses a caller saves convention for register saving across 
function calls, however this can cause unnecessary register 
pushing and popping when calling small functions from larger 
functions. This option can be used to switch the register saving 
convention for the function names specified. The compiler will 
not save registers when calling these functions, no extra code 
will be generated at the entry and exit (function prologue[LaTeX Command: index]
 and epilogue[LaTeX Command: index]) for these functions to save 
and restore the registers used by these functions, this can 
SUBSTANTIALLY reduce code and improve run time performance of the 
generated code. In the future the compiler (with inter procedural 
analysis) will be able to determine the appropriate scheme to use 
for each function call. DO NOT use this option for built-in 
functions such as _mulint..., if this option is used for a 
library function the appropriate library function needs to be 
recompiled with the same option. If the project consists of 
multiple source files then all the source file should be compiled 
with the same --callee-saves option string. Also see #pragma 
callee_saves [LaTeX Command: index] [ite:callee_saves-function1[,function2[,function3...]]--]
.

--all-callee-saves[LaTeX Command: index] Function of -
-callee-saves will be applied to all functions by default.

--debug[LaTeX Command: index] When this option is used the 
compiler will generate debug information. The debug information 
collected in a file with .cdb extension can be used with the 
SDCDB. For more information see documentation for SDCDB. Another 
file with no extension contains debug information in AOMF or 
AOMF51[LaTeX Command: index] format which is commonly used by 
third party tools.

-S[LaTeX Command: index] Stop after the stage of compilation 
proper; do not assemble. The output is an assembler code file for 
the input file specified.

--int-long-reent[LaTeX Command: index] Integer (16 bit) and long 
(32 bit) libraries have been compiled as reentrant. Note by 
default these libraries are compiled as non-reentrant. See 
section Installation for more details.

--cyclomatic[LaTeX Command: index] This option will cause the 
compiler to generate an information message for each function in 
the source file. The message contains some important information 
about the function. The number of edges and nodes the compiler 
detected in the control flow graph of the function, and most 
importantly the cyclomatic complexity[LaTeX Command: index] see 
section on Cyclomatic Complexity for more details.

--float-reent[LaTeX Command: index] Floating point library is 
compiled as reentrant[LaTeX Command: index]. See section 
Installation for more details.

--funsigned-char[LaTeX Command: index] The default signedness for 
every type is signed. In some embedded environments the default 
signedness of char is unsigned. To set the signess for characters 
to unsigned, use the option --funsigned-char. If this option is 
set and no signedness keyword (unsigned/signed) is given, a char 
will be signed. All other types are unaffected.

--main-return[LaTeX Command: index] This option can be used if 
the code generated is called by a monitor program or if the main 
routine includes an endless loop. This option results in slightly 
smaller code and saves two bytes of stack space. The return from 
the 'main'[LaTeX Command: index] function will return to the 
function calling main. The default setting is to lock up i.e. 
generate a 'sjmp .'.

--nostdinc[LaTeX Command: index] This will prevent the compiler 
from passing on the default include path to the preprocessor.

--nostdlib[LaTeX Command: index] This will prevent the compiler 
from passing on the default library[LaTeX Command: index] path to 
the linker.

--verbose[LaTeX Command: index] Shows the various actions the 
compiler is performing.

-V[LaTeX Command: index] Shows the actual commands the compiler 
is executing.

--no-c-code-in-asm[LaTeX Command: index] Hides your ugly and 
inefficient c-code from the asm file, so you can always blame the 
compiler :)

--fverbose-asm[LaTeX Command: index] Include code generator and 
peep-hole comments in the generated asm files.

--no-peep-comments[LaTeX Command: index] Don't include peep-hole 
comments in the generated asm files even if --fverbose-asm option 
is specified.

--i-code-in-asm[LaTeX Command: index] Include i-codes in the asm 
file. Sounds like noise but is most helpful for debugging the 
compiler itself.

--less-pedantic[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]<lyx:--less-pedantic>
 Disable some of the more pedantic warnings[LaTeX Command: index]
. For more details, see the less_pedantic pragma [ite:less_pedantic]
.

--disable-warning <nnnn>[LaTeX Command: index] Disable specific 
warning with number <nnnn>.

--Werror[LaTeX Command: index] Treat all warnings as errors.

--print-search-dirs[LaTeX Command: index] Display the directories 
in the compiler's search path

--vc[LaTeX Command: index] Display errors and warnings using MSVC 
style, so you can use SDCC with the visual studio IDE[LaTeX Command: index]
. With SDCC both offering a GCC-like (the default) and a 
MSVC-like[LaTeX Command: index] output style, integration into 
most programming editors should be straightforward.

--use-stdout[LaTeX Command: index] Send errors and warnings to 
stdout instead of stderr.

-Wa asmOption[,asmOption][LaTeX Command: index]... Pass the 
asmOption to the assembler[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
. See file sdcc/as/doc/asxhtm.html for assembler options.cd

--std-sdcc89[LaTeX Command: index] Generally follow the C89 
standard, but allow SDCC features that conflict with the standard 
(default).

--std-c89[LaTeX Command: index] Follow the C89 standard and 
disable SDCC features that conflict with the standard.

--std-sdcc99[LaTeX Command: index] Generally follow the C99 
standard, but allow SDCC features that conflict with the standard 
(incomplete support).

--std-c99[LaTeX Command: index] Follow the C99 standard and 
disable SDCC features that conflict with the standard (incomplete 
support).

--codeseg[LaTeX Command: index]<lyx:-codeseg> <Name> The name to 
be used for the code[LaTeX Command: index] segment, default CSEG. 
This is useful if you need to tell the compiler to put the code 
in a special segment so you can later on tell the linker to put 
this segment in a special place in memory. Can be used for 
instance when using bank switching to put the code in a bank.

--constseg[LaTeX Command: index] <Name> The name to be used for 
the const[LaTeX Command: index] segment, default CONST. This is 
useful if you need to tell the compiler to put the const data in 
a special segment so you can later on tell the linker to put this 
segment in a special place in memory. Can be used for instance 
when using bank switching to put the const data in a bank.

--fdollars-in-identifiers[LaTeX Command: index] Permit '$' as an 
identifier character.

--more-pedantic[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
Actually this is not a SDCC compiler option but if you want more 
warnings you can use a separate tool dedicated to syntax checking 
like splint<lyx:more-pedantic-SPLINT>[LaTeX Command: index] [http://www.splint.org]
. To make your source files parseable by splint you will have to 
include lint.h[LaTeX Command: index] in your source file and add 
brackets around extended keywords (like ”__at (0xab)” and ”
__interrupt (2)”). 
Splint has an excellent on line manual at [http://www.splint.org/manual/]
 and it's capabilities go beyond pure syntax checking. You'll 
need to tell splint the location of SDCC's include files so a 
typical command line could look like this: 
splint -I /usr/local/share/sdcc/include/mcs51/  myprogram.c

--short-is-8bits[LaTeX Command: index]<lyx:--short-is-8bits> 
Treat short as 8-bit (for backward compatibility with older 
versions of compiler - see section [sec:Compatibility-with-previous]
)





  Intermediate Dump Options<sub:Intermediate-Dump-Options>[LaTeX Command: index]
  [LaTeX Command: index]

The following options are provided for the purpose of 
retargetting and debugging the compiler. They provide a means to 
dump the intermediate code (iCode[LaTeX Command: index]) 
generated by the compiler in human readable form at various 
stages of the compilation process. More on iCodes see chapter [sub:The-anatomy-of]
 ”The anatomy of the compiler”.

--dumpraw[LaTeX Command: index] This option will cause the 
compiler to dump the intermediate code into a file of named 
<source filename>.dumpraw just after the intermediate code has 
been generated for a function, i.e. before any optimizations are 
done. The basic blocks[LaTeX Command: index] at this stage 
ordered in the depth first number, so they may not be in sequence 
of execution.

--dumpgcse[LaTeX Command: index] Will create a dump of iCodes, 
after global subexpression elimination[LaTeX Command: index], 
into a file named <source filename>.dumpgcse.

--dumpdeadcode[LaTeX Command: index] Will create a dump of 
iCodes, after deadcode elimination[LaTeX Command: index], into a 
file named <source filename>.dumpdeadcode.

--dumploop[LaTeX Command: index] Will create a dump of iCodes, 
after loop optimizations[LaTeX Command: index], into a file named 
<source filename>.dumploop.

--dumprange[LaTeX Command: index] Will create a dump of iCodes, 
after live range analysis[LaTeX Command: index], into a file 
named <source filename>.dumprange.

--dumlrange[LaTeX Command: index] Will dump the life ranges[LaTeX Command: index]
 for all symbols.

--dumpregassign[LaTeX Command: index] Will create a dump of 
iCodes, after register assignment[LaTeX Command: index], into a 
file named <source filename>.dumprassgn.

--dumplrange[LaTeX Command: index] Will create a dump of the live 
ranges of iTemp's

--dumpall[LaTeX Command: index] Will cause all the above 
mentioned dumps to be created.





  Redirecting output on Windows Shells

By default SDCC writes its error messages to ”standard error”. To 
force all messages to ”standard output” use --use-stdout[LaTeX Command: index]
. Additionally, if you happen to have visual studio installed in 
your windows machine, you can use it to compile your sources 
using a custom build and the SDCC --vc[LaTeX Command: index] 
option. Something like this should work:

c:\sdcc\bin\sdcc.exe --vc --model-large -c $(InputPath)



  Environment variables[LaTeX Command: index]

SDCC recognizes the following environment variables:

SDCC_LEAVE_SIGNALS[LaTeX Command: index] SDCC installs a signal 
handler[LaTeX Command: index] to be able to delete temporary 
files after an user break (^C) or an exception. If this 
environment variable is set, SDCC won't install the signal 
handler in order to be able to debug SDCC.

TMP, TEMP, TMPDIR[LaTeX Command: index] Path, where temporary 
files will be created. The order of the variables is the search 
order. In a standard *nix environment these variables are not 
set, and there's no need to set them. On Windows it's recommended 
to set one of them.

SDCC_HOME[LaTeX Command: index] Path, see section [sub:Install-paths]
 ” Install Paths”.

SDCC_INCLUDE[LaTeX Command: index] Path, see section [sub:Search-Paths]
 ”Search Paths”.

SDCC_LIB[LaTeX Command: index] Path, see section [sub:Search-Paths]
 ”Search Paths”..

There are some more environment variables recognized by SDCC, but 
these are solely used for debugging purposes. They can change or 
disappear very quickly, and will never be documented.



  Storage Class Language Extensions

  MCS51/DS390 Storage Class[LaTeX Command: index] Language 
  Extensions

In addition to the ANSI storage classes SDCC allows the following 
MCS51 specific storage classes:

  data[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] / near[LaTeX Command: index]
  [LaTeX Command: index]

This is the default storage class for the Small Memory model 
(data and near or the more ANSI-C compliant forms __data and 
__near can be used synonymously). Variables declared with this 
storage class will be allocated in the directly addressable 
portion of the internal RAM of a 8051, e.g.:

__data unsigned char test_data;

Writing 0x01 to this variable generates the assembly code:

75*00 01   mov  _test_data,#0x01

  xdata[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] / far[LaTeX Command: index]
  [LaTeX Command: index]

Variables declared with this storage class will be placed in the 
external RAM. This is the default storage class for the Large 
Memory model, e.g.:

__xdata unsigned char test_xdata;

Writing 0x01 to this variable generates the assembly code:

90s00r00   mov  dptr,#_test_xdata 
74 01      mov  a,#0x01 
F0         movx @dptr,a 

  idata[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

Variables declared with this storage class will be allocated into 
the indirectly addressable portion of the internal ram of a 8051, 
e.g.:

__idata unsigned char test_idata;

Writing 0x01 to this variable generates the assembly code:

78r00       mov  r0,#_test_idata
76 01       mov  @r0,#0x01

Please note, the first 128 byte of idata physically access the 
same RAM as the data memory. The original 8051 had 128 byte idata 
memory, nowadays most devices have 256 byte idata memory. The 
stack[LaTeX Command: index] is located in idata memory.

  pdata[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

Paged xdata access is just as straightforward as using the other 
addressing modes of a 8051. It is typically located at the start 
of xdata and has a maximum size of 256 bytes. The following 
example writes 0x01 to the pdata variable. Please note, pdata 
access physically accesses xdata memory. The high byte of the 
address is determined by port P2 [LaTeX Command: index](or in 
case of some 8051 variants by a separate Special Function 
Register, see section [sub:MCS51-variants]). This is the default 
storage class for the Medium Memory model, e.g.:

__pdata unsigned char test_pdata;

Writing 0x01 to this variable generates the assembly code:

78r00      mov r0,#_test_pdata
74 01      mov a,#0x01 
F2         movx @r0,a

If the --xstack[LaTeX Command: index] option is used the pdata 
memory area is followed by the xstack memory area and the sum of 
their sizes is limited to 256 bytes.

  code[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

'Variables' declared with this storage class will be placed in 
the code memory:

__code unsigned char test_code;

Read access to this variable generates the assembly code:

90s00r6F   mov dptr,#_test_code
E4         clr a
93         movc a,@a+dptr 

char indexed arrays of characters in code memory can be accessed 
efficiently:

__code char test_array[] = {'c','h','e','a','p'}; 

Read access to this array using an 8-bit unsigned index generates 
the assembly code:

E5*00      mov a,_index 

90s00r41   mov dptr,#_test_array

93         movc a,@a+dptr 

  bit[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

This is a data-type and a storage class specifier. When a 
variable is declared as a bit, it is allocated into the bit 
addressable memory of 8051, e.g.:

__bit test_bit;

Writing 1 to this variable generates the assembly code:

D2*00       setb _test_bit

The bit addressable memory consists of 128 bits which are located 
from 0x20 to 0x2f in data memory. 
Apart from this 8051 specific storage class most architectures 
support ANSI-C bitfields[LaTeX Command: index][footnote:
Not really meant as examples, but nevertheless showing what 
bitfields are about: device/include/mc68hc908qy.h and 
support/regression/tests/bitfields.c
]. In accordance with ISO/IEC 9899 bits and bitfields without an 
explicit signed modifier are implemented as unsigned.

  sfr[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] / sfr16[LaTeX Command: index]
  [LaTeX Command: index] / sfr32[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
   / sbit[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

Like the bit keyword, sfr / sfr16 / sfr32 / sbit signify both a 
data-type and storage class, they are used to describe the 
special function registers and special bit variables of a 8051, 
eg:

__sfr __at[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] (0x80) P0; 
 /* special function register P0 at location 0x80 */

/* 16 bit special function register combination for timer 0
   with the high byte at location 0x8C and the low byte at 
location 0x8A */
__sfr16 __at (0x8C8A) TMR0;

__sbit __at[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] (0xd7) 
CY;  /* CY (Carry Flag[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
) */

Special function registers which are located on an address 
dividable by 8 are bit-addressable, an sbit addresses a specific 
bit within these sfr.
16 Bit and 32 bit special function register combinations which 
require a certain access order are better not declared using 
sfr16 or sfr32. Allthough SDCC usually accesses them Least 
Significant Byte (LSB) first, this is not guaranteed.


Please note, if you use a header file which was written for 
another compiler then the sfr / sfr16 / sfr32 / sbit Storage 
Class extensions will most likely be not compatible. Specifically 
the syntax  sfr P0 = 0x80;  is compiled without warning by SDCC 
to an assignment of 0x80 to a variable called P0 [margin:
 !
]. Nevertheless it is possible to write header files[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index] which can be shared among different 
compilers (see section [sec:Porting-code-to-other-compilers]). 

  Pointers[LaTeX Command: index] to MCS51/DS390 specific memory 
  spaces

SDCC allows (via language extensions) pointers to explicitly 
point to any of the memory spaces[LaTeX Command: index] of the 
8051. In addition to the explicit pointers, the compiler uses (by 
default) generic pointers which can be used to point to any of 
the memory spaces.

Pointer declaration examples:

/* pointer physically in internal ram pointing to object in 
external ram */ 
__xdata unsigned char * __data p;

/* pointer physically in external ram pointing to object in 
internal ram */ 
__data unsigned char * __xdata p;

/* pointer physically in code rom pointing to data in xdata space 
*/ 
__xdata unsigned char * __code p;

/* pointer physically in code space pointing to data in code 
space */ 
__code unsigned char * __code p;

/* generic pointer physically located in xdata space */
unsigned char * __xdata p;

/* generic pointer physically located in default memory space */
unsigned char * p;

/* the following is a function pointer[LaTeX Command: index] 
physically located in data space */
char (* __data fp)(void);

Well you get the idea. 

All unqualified pointers are treated as 3-byte (4-byte for the 
ds390) generic pointers. 

The highest order byte of the generic pointers contains the data 
space information. Assembler support routines are called whenever 
data is stored or retrieved using generic pointers. These are 
useful for developing reusable library[LaTeX Command: index] 
routines. Explicitly specifying the pointer[LaTeX Command: index] 
type will generate the most efficient code.

  Notes on MCS51 memory[LaTeX Command: index] layout

The 8051 family of microcontrollers have a minimum of 128 bytes 
of internal RAM memory which is structured as follows:

- Bytes 00-1F - 32 bytes to hold up to 4 banks of the registers 
R0 to R7, 
- Bytes 20-2F - 16 bytes to hold 128 bit[LaTeX Command: index] 
variables and, 
- Bytes 30-7F - 80 bytes for general purpose use.


Additionally some members of the MCS51 family may have up to 128 
bytes of additional, indirectly addressable, internal RAM memory 
(idata[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]). Furthermore, 
some chips may have some built in external memory (xdata[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index]) which should not be confused with the 
internal, directly addressable RAM memory (data[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index]). Sometimes this built in xdata memory has 
to be activated before using it (you can probably find this 
information on the datasheet of the microcontroller your are 
using, see also section [sub:Startup-Code] Startup-Code).

Normally SDCC will only use the first bank[LaTeX Command: index] 
of registers (register bank 0), but it is possible to specify 
that other banks of registers (keyword using [LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index]) should be used for example in interrupt[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index] routines. By default, the compiler will 
place the stack after the last byte of allocated memory for 
variables. For example, if the first 2 banks of registers are 
used, and only four bytes are used for data variables, it will 
position the base of the internal stack at address 20 (0x14). 
This implies that as the stack[LaTeX Command: index] grows, it 
will use up the remaining register banks, and the 16 bytes used 
by the 128 bit variables, and 80 bytes for general purpose use. 
If any bit variables are used, the data variables will be placed 
in unused register banks and after the byte holding the last bit 
variable. For example, if register banks 0 and 1 are used, and 
there are 9 bit variables (two bytes used), data variables will 
be placed starting from address 0x10 to 0x20 and continue at 
address 0x22. You can also use --data-loc[LaTeX Command: index] 
to specify the start address of the data and --iram-size[LaTeX Command: index]
 to specify the size of the total internal RAM (data+idata). 


By default the 8051 linker will place the stack after the last 
byte of (i)data variables. Option --stack-loc[LaTeX Command: index]
 allows you to specify the start of the stack, i.e. you could 
start it after any data in the general purpose area. If your 
microcontroller has additional indirectly addressable internal 
RAM (idata) you can place the stack on it. You may also need to 
use --xdata-loc[LaTeX Command: index] to set the start address of 
the external RAM (xdata) and --xram-size[LaTeX Command: index] to 
specify its size. Same goes for the code memory, using --code-loc[LaTeX Command: index]
 and --code-size[LaTeX Command: index]. If in doubt, don't 
specify any options and see if the resulting memory layout is 
appropriate, then you can adjust it.

The linker generates two files with memory allocation 
information. The first, with extension .map[LaTeX Command: index] 
shows all the variables and segments. The second with extension 
.mem[LaTeX Command: index] shows the final memory layout. The 
linker will complain either if memory segments overlap, there is 
not enough memory, or there is not enough space for stack. If you 
get any linking warnings and/or errors related to stack or 
segments allocation, take a look at either the .map or .mem files 
to find out what the problem is. The .mem file may even suggest a 
solution to the problem.



  Z80/Z180 Storage Class[LaTeX Command: index] Language 
  Extensions

  sfr[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] (in/out to 
  8-bit addresses)

The Z80[LaTeX Command: index] family has separate address spaces 
for memory and input/output memory. I/O memory[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] is accessed with 
special instructions, e.g.:

sfr at 0x78 IoPort;  /* define a var in I/O space at 78h called 
IoPort */ 

Writing 0x01 to this variable generates the assembly code:

3E 01      ld a,#0x01
D3 78      out (_IoPort),a 

  banked sfr[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] (in/out 
  to 16-bit addresses)

The keyword banked is used to support 16 bit addresses in I/O 
memory e.g.:

sfr banked at[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 0x123 
IoPort; 

Writing 0x01 to this variable generates the assembly code:

01 23 01   ld bc,#_IoPort
3E 01      ld a,#0x01 
ED 79      out (c),a 

  sfr[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] (in0/out0 to 8 
  bit addresses on Z180[LaTeX Command: index]/HD64180[LaTeX Command: index]
  )

The compiler option --portmode[LaTeX Command: index]=180 (80) and 
a compiler #pragma portmode[LaTeX Command: index] z180 (z80) is 
used to turn on (off) the Z180/HD64180 port addressing 
instructions in0/out0 instead of in/out. If you include the file 
z180.h this will be set automatically.



  HC08 Storage Class[LaTeX Command: index] Language Extensions

  data[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 

The data storage class declares a variable that resides in the 
first 256 bytes of memory (the direct page). The HC08[LaTeX Command: index]
 is most efficient at accessing variables (especially pointers) 
stored here.

  xdata[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 

The xdata storage class declares a variable that can reside 
anywhere in memory. This is the default if no storage class is 
specified. 



  Absolute Addressing[LaTeX Command: index]

Data items can be assigned an absolute address with the at[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index] <address> keyword, in addition to a 
storage class, e.g.:

xdata[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] at[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index] 0x7ffe unsigned int chksum;

or, better conforming to ISO/IEC 9899 C:

__xdata __at (0x7ffe) unsigned int chksum;

In the above example the variable chksum will be located at 
0x7ffe and 0x7fff of the external ram. The compiler does not 
reserve any space for variables declared in this way[margin:
 !
] (they are implemented with an equate in the assembler). Thus it 
is left to the programmer to make sure there are no overlaps with 
other variables that are declared without the absolute address. 
The assembler listing file (.lst[LaTeX Command: index]) and the 
linker output files (.rst[LaTeX Command: index]) and (.map[LaTeX Command: index]
) are good places to look for such overlaps.

If however you provide an initializer[LaTeX Command: index] 
actual memory allocation will take place and overlaps will be 
detected by the linker. E.g.:

__code __at (0x7ff0) char Id[5] = ”SDCC”;

In the above example the variable Id will be located from 0x7ff0 
to 0x7ff4 in code memory.

In case of memory mapped I/O devices the keyword volatile has to 
be used to tell the compiler that accesses might not be removed:

volatile[LaTeX Command: index] __xdata[LaTeX Command: index] __at[LaTeX Command: index]
 (0x8000) unsigned char PORTA_8255;

For some architectures (mcs51) array accesses are more efficient 
if an (xdata/far) array[LaTeX Command: index] starts at a block 
(256 byte) boundary[LaTeX Command: index] (section [sub:A-Step-by Assembler Introduction]
 has an example).
Absolute addresses can be specified for variables in all storage 
classes, e.g.:

__bit[LaTeX Command: index] __at[LaTeX Command: index] (0x02) 
bvar;

The above example will allocate the variable at offset 0x02 in 
the bit-addressable space. There is no real advantage to 
assigning absolute addresses to variables in this manner, unless 
you want strict control over all the variables allocated. One 
possible use would be to write hardware portable code. For 
example, if you have a routine that uses one or more of the 
microcontroller I/O pins, and such pins are different for two 
different hardwares, you can declare the I/O pins in your routine 
using:

extern volatile[LaTeX Command: index] __bit MOSI;    /* master 
out, slave in */
extern volatile __bit MISO;    /* master in, slave out */
extern volatile __bit MCLK;    /* master clock */

/* Input and Output of a byte on a 3-wire serial bus.
   If needed adapt polarity of clock, polarity of data and bit 
order
 */
unsigned char spi_io(unsigned char out_byte) 
{ 
    unsigned char i=8;
    do { 
        MOSI = out_byte & 0x80; 
        out_byte <<= 1;
        MCLK = 1; 
        /* _asm nop _endasm; */        /* for slow peripherals */
        if(MISO) 
            out_byte += 1; 
        MCLK = 0; 
    } while(--i);
    return out_byte; 
}

Then, someplace in the code for the first hardware you would use

__bit __at[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] (0x80) 
MOSI;    /* I/O port 0, bit 0 */
__bit __at (0x81) MISO;    /* I/O port 0, bit 1 */
__bit __at (0x82) MCLK;    /* I/O port 0, bit 2 */

Similarly, for the second hardware you would use

__bit __at (0x83) MOSI;    /* I/O port 0, bit 3 */
__bit __at (0x91) MISO;    /* I/O port 1, bit 1 */
__bit[LaTeX Command: index] __at (0x92) MCLK;    /* I/O port 1, 
bit 2 */

and you can use the same hardware dependent routine without 
changes, as for example in a library. This is somehow similar to 
sbit, but only one absolute address has to be specified in the 
whole project.



  Parameters[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] & Local 
  Variables[LaTeX Command: index]<sec:Parameters-and-Local-Variables>

Automatic (local) variables and parameters to functions can 
either be placed on the stack or in data-space. The default 
action of the compiler is to place these variables in the 
internal RAM (for small model) or external RAM (for medium or 
large model). This in fact makes them similar to static[LaTeX Command: index]
 so by default functions are non-reentrant[LaTeX Command: index]. 


They can be placed on the stack[LaTeX Command: index] by using 
the --stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index] option, by using #pragma 
stackauto[LaTeX Command: index] or by using the reentrant[LaTeX Command: index]
 keyword in the function declaration, e.g.:

unsigned char foo(char i) __reentrant 
{ 
    ... 
}

Since stack space on 8051 is limited, the reentrant keyword or 
the --stack-auto option should be used sparingly. Note that the 
reentrant keyword just means that the parameters & local 
variables will be allocated to the stack, it does not mean that 
the function is register bank[LaTeX Command: index] independent.

Local variables[LaTeX Command: index] can be assigned storage 
classes and absolute[LaTeX Command: index] addresses, e.g.: 

unsigned char foo() 
{
    __xdata unsigned char i;
    __bit bvar;
    __data __at[LaTeX Command: index] (0x31) unsigned char j;
    ... 
}

In the above example the variable i will be allocated in the 
external ram, bvar in bit addressable space and j in internal 
ram. When compiled with --stack-auto or when a function is 
declared as reentrant this should only be done for static 
variables.

Parameters[LaTeX Command: index] however are not allowed any 
storage class[LaTeX Command: index], (storage classes for 
parameters will be ignored), their allocation is governed by the 
memory model in use, and the reentrancy options.

It is however allowed to use bit parameters in reentrant 
functions and also non-static local bit variables are supported. 
Efficient use is limited to 8 semi-bitregisters in bit space. 
They are pushed and popped to stack[LaTeX Command: index] as a 
single byte just like the normal registers.

  Overlaying<sub:Overlaying>[LaTeX Command: index]

For non-reentrant[LaTeX Command: index] functions SDCC will try 
to reduce internal ram space usage by overlaying parameters and 
local variables of a function (if possible). Parameters and local 
variables[LaTeX Command: index] of a function will be allocated 
to an overlayable segment if the function has no other function 
calls and the function is non-reentrant and the memory model[LaTeX Command: index]
 is small. If an explicit storage class[LaTeX Command: index] is 
specified for a local variable, it will NOT be overlayed.

Note that the compiler (not the linkage editor) makes the 
decision for overlaying the data items. Functions that are called 
from an interrupt service routine[margin:
!
] should be preceded by a #pragma nooverlay[LaTeX Command: index] 
if they are not reentrant.

Also note that the compiler does not do any processing of inline 
assembler code, so the compiler might incorrectly assign local 
variables and parameters of a function into the overlay segment 
if the inline assembler code calls other c-functions that might 
use the overlay. In that case the #pragma nooverlay should be 
used.

Parameters and local variables of functions that contain 16 or 32 
bit multiplication[LaTeX Command: index] or division[LaTeX Command: index]
 will NOT be overlayed since these are implemented using external 
functions, e.g.:

#pragma save 
#pragma nooverlay[LaTeX Command: index] 
void set_error(unsigned char errcd) 
{
    P3 = errcd;
} 
#pragma restore 

void some_isr () __interrupt[LaTeX Command: index] (2)
{
    ...
    set_error(10);
    ... 
}

In the above example the parameter errcd for the function 
set_error would be assigned to the overlayable segment if the 
#pragma nooverlay was not present, this could cause unpredictable 
runtime behavior when called from an interrupt service routine. 
The #pragma nooverlay ensures that the parameters and local 
variables for the function are NOT overlayed.



  Interrupt Service Routines<sub:Interrupt-Service-Routines>

  General Information

SDCC allows interrupt service routines to be coded in C, with 
some extended keywords.

void timer_isr (void) __interrupt (1) __using (1) 
{ 
    ... 
}

The optional number following the interrupt[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
 keyword is the interrupt number this routine will service. When 
present, the compiler will insert a call to this routine in the 
interrupt vector table[LaTeX Command: index] for the interrupt 
number specified. If you have multiple source files in your 
project, interrupt service routines can be present in any of 
them, but a prototype of the isr MUST be present or included in 
the file that contains the function main. The optional (8051 
specific) keyword using[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
 can be used to tell the compiler to use the specified register 
bank when generating code for this function. 
Interrupt service routines open the door for some very 
interesting bugs:

  <sub:Common-interrupt-pitfall-volatile>Common interrupt 
  pitfall: variable not declared volatile

If an interrupt service routine changes variables which are 
accessed by other functions these variables have to be declared 
volatile[LaTeX Command: index]. See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_variable]
 .

  <sub:Common-interrupt-pitfall-non-atomic>Common interrupt 
  pitfall: non-atomic access

If the access to these variables is not atomic[LaTeX Command: index]
 (i.e. the processor needs more than one instruction for the 
access and could be interrupted while accessing the variable) the 
interrupt must be disabled during the access to avoid 
inconsistent data. 
Access to 16 or 32 bit variables is obviously not atomic on 8 bit 
CPUs and should be protected by disabling interrupts. You're not 
automatically on the safe side if you use 8 bit variables though. 
We need an example here: f.e. on the 8051 the harmless looking ”
flags |= 0x80;” is not atomic if flags resides in xdata. Setting ”
flags |= 0x40;” from within an interrupt routine might get lost 
if the interrupt occurs at the wrong time. ”counter += 8;” is not 
atomic on the 8051 even if counter is located in data memory.
Bugs like these are hard to reproduce and can cause a lot of 
trouble. 

  <sub:Common-interrupt-pitfall-stack-overflow>Common interrupt 
  pitfall: stack overflow

The return address and the registers used in the interrupt 
service routine are saved on the stack[LaTeX Command: index] so 
there must be sufficient stack space. If there isn't variables or 
registers (or even the return address itself) will be corrupted. 
This stack overflow[LaTeX Command: index] is most likely to 
happen if the interrupt occurs during the ”deepest” subroutine 
when the stack is already in use for f.e. many return addresses.

  <sub:Common-interrupt-pitfall-non-reentrant>Common interrupt 
  pitfall: use of non-reentrant functions

A special note here, int (16 bit) and long (32 bit) integer 
division[LaTeX Command: index], multiplication[LaTeX Command: index]
 & modulus[LaTeX Command: index] and floating-point[LaTeX Command: index]
 operations are implemented using external support routines. If 
an interrupt service routine needs to do any of these operations 
then the support routines (as mentioned in a following section) 
will have to be recompiled using the --stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index]
 option and the source file will need to be compiled using the -
-int-long-reent[LaTeX Command: index] compiler option. 
Note, the type promotion[LaTeX Command: index] required by ANSI C 
can cause 16 bit routines to be used[margin:
 !
] without the programmer being aware of it. See f.e. the cast 
(unsigned char)(tail-1) within the if clause in section [sub:A-Step-by Assembler Introduction]
.

Calling other functions from an interrupt service routine is not 
recommended, avoid it if possible. Note that when some function 
is called from an interrupt service routine it should be preceded 
by a #pragma nooverlay[LaTeX Command: index] if it is not 
reentrant. Furthermore nonreentrant functions should not be 
called from the main program while the interrupt service routine 
might be active. They also must not be called from low priority 
interrupt service routines while a high priority interrupt 
service routine might be active. You could use semaphores or make 
the function critical if all parameters are passed in registers.
 Also see section [sub:Overlaying] about Overlaying and section [sub:Functions-using-private-banks]
 about Functions using private register banks.



  MCS51/DS390 Interrupt Service Routines

Interrupt[LaTeX Command: index] numbers and the corresponding 
address & descriptions for the Standard 8051/8052 are listed 
below. SDCC will automatically adjust the [LaTeX Command: index] 
to the maximum interrupt number specified.



+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
| Interrupt #  | Description     | Vector Address |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|      0       | External 0      | 0x0003         |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|      1       | Timer 0         | 0x000b         |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|      2       | External 1      | 0x0013         |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|      3       | Timer 1         | 0x001b         |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|      4       | Serial          | 0x0023         |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|      5       | Timer 2 (8052)  | 0x002b         |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|     ...      |                 | ...            |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+
|      n       |                 | 0x0003 + 8*n   |
+--------------+-----------------+----------------+



If the interrupt service routine is defined without using[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index] a register bank or with register bank 0 
(using 0), the compiler will save the registers used by itself on 
the stack upon entry and restore them at exit, however if such an 
interrupt service routine calls another function then the entire 
register bank will be saved on the stack. This scheme may be 
advantageous for small interrupt service routines which have low 
register usage.

If the interrupt service routine is defined to be using a 
specific register bank then only a, b, dptr & psw are saved and 
restored, if such an interrupt service routine calls another 
function (using another register bank) then the entire register 
bank of the called function will be saved on the stack[LaTeX Command: index]
. This scheme is recommended for larger interrupt service 
routines.



  HC08[LaTeX Command: index] Interrupt Service Routines

Since the number of interrupts[LaTeX Command: index] available is 
chip specific and the interrupt vector table always ends at the 
last byte of memory, the interrupt numbers corresponds to the 
interrupt vectors in reverse order of address. For example, 
interrupt 1 will use the interrupt vector at 0xfffc, interrupt 2 
will use the interrupt vector at 0xfffa, and so on. However, 
interrupt 0 (the reset vector at 0xfffe) is not redefinable in 
this way; instead see section [sub:Startup-Code] for details on 
customizing startup.



  Z80 Interrupt Service Routines

The Z80[LaTeX Command: index] uses several different methods for 
determining the correct interrupt[LaTeX Command: index] vector 
depending on the hardware implementation. Therefore, SDCC ignores 
the optional interrupt number and does not attempt to generate an 
interrupt vector table.

By default, SDCC generates code for a maskable interrupt, which 
uses a RETI instruction to return from the interrupt. To write an 
interrupt handler for the non-maskable interrupt, which needs a 
RETN instruction instead, add the critical keyword:

void nmi_isr (void) critical interrupt
{ 
    ... 
}

However if you need to create a non-interruptable interrupt 
service routine you would also require the critical keyword. To 
distinguish between this and an nmi_isr you must provide an 
interrupt number.



  Enabling and Disabling Interrupts

  Critical Functions and Critical Statements

A special keyword may be associated with a block or a function 
declaring it as critical. SDCC will generate code to disable all 
interrupts[LaTeX Command: index] upon entry to a critical 
function and restore the interrupt enable to the previous state 
before returning. Nesting critical functions will need one 
additional byte on the stack[LaTeX Command: index] for each call.

int foo () __critical[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 

{ 
    ... 
    ... 
}

The critical attribute maybe used with other attributes like 
reentrant.
The keyword critical may also be used to disable interrupts more 
locally:

__critical{ i++; }

More than one statement could have been included in the block.

  Enabling and Disabling Interrupts directly

Interrupts[LaTeX Command: index] can also be disabled and enabled 
directly (8051):

EA = 0;            or:           EA_SAVE = EA;

...                              EA = 0;

EA = 1;                          ...

                                 EA = EA_SAVE;

On other architectures which have seperate opcodes for enabling 
and disabling interrupts you might want to make use of defines 
with inline assembly[LaTeX Command: index] (HC08[LaTeX Command: index]
):

#define CLI _asm[LaTeX Command: index]  cli  _endasm[LaTeX Command: index]
; 

#define SEI _asm  sei  _endasm; 

...

Note: it is sometimes sufficient to disable only a specific 
interrupt source like f.e. a timer or serial interrupt by 
manipulating an interrupt mask[LaTeX Command: index] register. 

Usually the time during which interrupts are disabled should be 
kept as short as possible. This minimizes both interrupt latency[LaTeX Command: index]
 (the time between the occurrence of the interrupt and the 
execution of the first code in the interrupt routine) and 
interrupt jitter[LaTeX Command: index] (the difference between 
the shortest and the longest interrupt latency). These really are 
something different, f.e. a serial interrupt has to be served 
before its buffer overruns so it cares for the maximum interrupt 
latency, whereas it does not care about jitter. On a loudspeaker 
driven via a digital to analog converter which is fed by an 
interrupt a latency of a few milliseconds might be tolerable, 
whereas a much smaller jitter will be very audible.

You can reenable interrupts within an interrupt routine and on 
some architectures you can make use of two (or more) levels of 
interrupt priorities[LaTeX Command: index]. On some architectures 
which don't support interrupt priorities these can be implemented 
by manipulating the interrupt mask and reenabling interrupts 
within the interrupt routine. Check there is sufficient space on 
the stack[LaTeX Command: index] and don't add complexity unless 
you have to. 

  Semaphore[LaTeX Command: index] locking (mcs51/ds390)

Some architectures (mcs51/ds390) have an atomic[LaTeX Command: index]
 bit test and clear instruction. These type of instructions are 
typically used in preemptive multitasking systems, where a 
routine f.e. claims the use of a data structure ('acquires a lock[LaTeX Command: index]
 on it'), makes some modifications and then releases the lock 
when the data structure is consistent again. The instruction may 
also be used if interrupt and non-interrupt code have to compete 
for a resource. With the atomic bit test and clear instruction 
interrupts[LaTeX Command: index] don't have to be disabled for 
the locking operation. 

SDCC generates this instruction if the source follows this 
pattern:

volatile[LaTeX Command: index] bit resource_is_free; 

if (resource_is_free) 
  { 
    resource_is_free=0; 
    ... 
    resource_is_free=1;
  } 

Note, mcs51 and ds390 support only an atomic[LaTeX Command: index]
 bit test and clear instruction (as opposed to atomic bit test 
and set).

  Functions using private register banks<sub:Functions-using-private-banks>
   (mcs51/ds390)

Some architectures have support for quickly changing register 
sets. SDCC supports this feature with the using[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index] attribute (which tells the compiler to use 
a register bank[LaTeX Command: index] other than the default bank 
zero). It should only be applied to interrupt[LaTeX Command: index]
 functions (see footnote below). This will in most circumstances 
make the generated ISR code more efficient since it will not have 
to save registers on the stack.

The using attribute will have no effect on the generated code for 
a non-interrupt function (but may occasionally be useful anyway[footnote:
possible exception: if a function is called ONLY from 'interrupt' 
functions using a particular bank, it can be declared with the 
same 'using' attribute as the calling 'interrupt' functions. For 
instance, if you have several ISRs using bank one, and all of 
them call memcpy(), it might make sense to create a specialized 
version of memcpy() 'using 1', since this would prevent the ISR 
from having to save bank zero to the stack on entry and switch to 
bank zero before calling the function
]).
(pending: Note, nowadays the using attribute has an effect on the 
generated code for a non-interrupt function.)

An interrupt function using a non-zero bank will assume that it 
can trash that register bank, and will not save it. Since 
high-priority interrupts[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
 can interrupt low-priority ones on the 8051 and friends, this 
means that if a high-priority ISR using a particular bank occurs 
while processing a low-priority ISR using the same bank, terrible 
and bad things can happen. To prevent this, no single register 
bank should be used by both a high priority and a low priority 
ISR. This is probably most easily done by having all high 
priority ISRs use one bank and all low priority ISRs use another. 
If you have an ISR which can change priority at runtime, you're 
on your own: I suggest using the default bank zero and taking the 
small performance hit.

It is most efficient if your ISR calls no other functions. If 
your ISR must call other functions, it is most efficient if those 
functions use the same bank as the ISR (see note 1 below); the 
next best is if the called functions use bank zero. It is very 
inefficient to call a function using a different, non-zero bank 
from an ISR. 



  Startup Code<sub:Startup-Code>[LaTeX Command: index]

  MCS51/DS390 Startup Code

The compiler triggers the linker to link certain initialization 
modules from the runtime library[LaTeX Command: index] called 
crt<something>. Only the necessary ones are linked, for instance 
crtxstack.asm (GSINIT1, GSINIT5) is not linked unless the -
-xstack option is used. These modules are highly entangled by the 
use of special segments/areas, but a common layout is shown 
below:

(main.asm)

        .area HOME (CODE)
__interrupt_vect:
        ljmp __sdcc_gsinit_startup

(crtstart.asm)

        .area GSINIT0 (CODE)
__sdcc_gsinit_startup::
        mov sp,#__start__stack - 1

(crtxstack.asm)

        .area GSINIT1 (CODE)
__sdcc_init_xstack::
; Need to initialize in GSINIT1 in case the user's 
__sdcc_external_startup uses the xstack.
        mov __XPAGE,#(__start__xstack >> 8)
        mov _spx,#__start__xstack

(crtstart.asm)

        .area GSINIT2 (CODE)
        lcall __sdcc_external_startup
        mov a,dpl
        jz __sdcc_init_data
        ljmp __sdcc_program_startup
__sdcc_init_data:

(crtxinit.asm)

        .area GSINIT3 (CODE)
__mcs51_genXINIT::
        mov r1,#l_XINIT
        mov a,r1
        orl a,#(l_XINIT >> 8)
        jz 00003$
        mov r2,#((l_XINIT+255) >> 8)
        mov dptr,#s_XINIT
        mov r0,#s_XISEG
        mov __XPAGE,#(s_XISEG >> 8)
00001$: clr a
        movc a,@a+dptr
        movx @r0,a
        inc dptr
        inc r0
        cjne r0,#0,00002$
        inc __XPAGE
00002$: djnz r1,00001$
        djnz r2,00001$
        mov __XPAGE,#0xFF
00003$:

(crtclear.asm)

        .area GSINIT4 (CODE)
__mcs51_genRAMCLEAR::
        clr a
        mov r0,#(l_IRAM-1)
00004$: mov @r0,a
        djnz r0,00004$
; _mcs51_genRAMCLEAR() end

(crtxclear.asm)

        .area GSINIT4 (CODE)
__mcs51_genXRAMCLEAR::
        mov r0,#l_PSEG
        mov a,r0
        orl a,#(l_PSEG >> 8)
        jz 00006$
        mov r1,#s_PSEG
        mov __XPAGE,#(s_PSEG >> 8)
        clr a
00005$: movx @r1,a
        inc r1
        djnz r0,00005$
00006$:
        mov r0,#l_XSEG
        mov a,r0
        orl a,#(l_XSEG >> 8)
        jz 00008$
        mov r1,#((l_XSEG + 255) >> 8)
        mov dptr,#s_XSEG
        clr a
00007$: movx @dptr,a
        inc dptr
        djnz r0,00007$
        djnz r1,00007$
00008$:

(crtxstack.asm)

        .area GSINIT5 (CODE)
; Need to initialize in GSINIT5 because __mcs51_genXINIT modifies 
__XPAGE
; and __mcs51_genRAMCLEAR modifies _spx.
        mov __XPAGE,#(__start__xstack >> 8)
        mov _spx,#__start__xstack

(application modules)

        .area GSINIT (CODE)

(main.asm)

        .area GSFINAL (CODE)
        ljmp __sdcc_program_startup
;--------------------------------------------------------
; Home
;--------------------------------------------------------
        .area HOME (CODE)
        .area CSEG (CODE)
__sdcc_program_startup:
        lcall _main
; return from main will lock up
        sjmp .

One of these modules (crtstart.asm) contains a call to the C 
routine _sdcc_external_startup()[LaTeX Command: index] at the 
start of the CODE area. This routine is also in the runtime 
library[LaTeX Command: index] and returns 0 by default. If this 
routine returns a non-zero value, the static & global variable 
initialization will be skipped and the function main will be 
invoked. Otherwise static & global variables will be initialized 
before the function main is invoked. You could add an 
_sdcc_external_startup() routine to your program to override the 
default if you need to setup hardware or perform some other 
critical operation prior to static & global variable 
initialization[LaTeX Command: index]. On some mcs51 variants 
xdata[LaTeX Command: index] memory has to be explicitly enabled 
before it can be accessed or if the watchdog[LaTeX Command: index]
 needs to be disabled, this is the place to do it. The startup 
code clears all internal data memory, 256 bytes by default, but 
from 0 to n-1 if --iram-size[LaTeX Command: index]n is used. 
(recommended for Chipcon CC1010).

See also the compiler options --no-xinit-opt[LaTeX Command: index]
, --main-return[LaTeX Command: index] and section [sub:MCS51-variants]
 about MCS51-variants.


While these initialization modules are meant as generic startup 
code there might be the need for customization. Let's assume the 
return value of _sdcc_external_startup() in crtstart.asm should 
not be checked (or _sdcc_external_startup() should not be called 
at all). The recommended way would be to copy crtstart.asm (f.e. 
from [http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/device/lib/mcs51/crtstart.asm]
) into the source directory, adapt it there, then assemble it 
with asx8051 -plosgff[footnote:
”-plosgff” are the assembler options used in [http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/device/lib/mcs51/Makefile.in?view=markup ]
] crtstart.asm and when linking your project explicitely specify 
crtstart.rel. As a bonus a listing of the relocated object file 
crtstart.rst is generated.





  HC08 Startup Code

The HC08[LaTeX Command: index] startup code follows the same 
scheme as the MCS51 startup code.



  Z80 Startup Code

On the Z80[LaTeX Command: index] the startup code is inserted by 
linking with crt0.o which is generated from 
sdcc/device/lib/z80/crt0.s. If you need a different startup code 
you can use the compiler option --no-std-crt0[LaTeX Command: index]
 and provide your own crt0.o. 



  Inline Assembler Code[LaTeX Command: index]

  A Step by Step Introduction<sub:A-Step-by Assembler Introduction>

Starting from a small snippet of c-code this example shows for 
the MCS51 how to use inline assembly, access variables, a 
function parameter and an array in xdata memory. The example uses 
an MCS51 here but is easily adapted for other architectures. This 
is a buffer routine which should be optimized:

unsigned char __far[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
__at[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index](0x7f00) 
buf[0x100];[LaTeX Command: index]
unsigned char head, tail;                 /* if interrupts[LaTeX Command: index]
 are involved see
                                             section [sub:Common-interrupt-pitfall-volatile]
 about volatile */

void to_buffer( unsigned char c ) 
{
    if( head != (unsigned char)(tail-1) ) /* cast needed to avoid 
promotion[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] to integer 
*/[margin:
 !
]
        buf[ head++ ] = c;                /* access to a 256 byte 
aligned array */
} 

If the code snippet (assume it is saved in buffer.c) is compiled 
with SDCC then a corresponding buffer.asm file is generated. We 
define a new function to_buffer_asm() in file buffer.c in which 
we cut and paste the generated code, removing unwanted comments 
and some ':'. Then add ”_asm” and ”_endasm;”[footnote:
Note, that the single underscore form (_asm and _endasm) are not 
C99-compatible, and for C-99 compatibility, the double-underscore 
form (__asm and __endasm) has to be used. The latter is also used 
in the library functions.
] to the beginning and the end of the function body:

/* With a cut and paste from the .asm file, we have something to 
start with.
   The function is not yet OK! (registers aren't saved) */ 
void to_buffer_asm( unsigned char c ) 
{ 
    _asm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
    mov  r2,dpl 
;buffer.c if( head != (unsigned char)(tail-1) )  /* cast needed 
to avoid promotion[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] to 
integer */
    mov  a,_tail 
    dec  a 
    mov  r3,a 
    mov  a,_head 
    cjne a,ar3,00106$ 
    ret
00106$: 
;buffer.c buf[ head++ ] = c; /* access to a 256 byte aligned 
array */[LaTeX Command: index]
    mov  r3,_head 
    inc  _head 
    mov  dpl,r3 
    mov  dph,#(_buf >> 8) 
    mov  a,r2 
    movx @dptr,a 
00103$: 
    ret
    _endasm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index];
} 

The new file buffer.c should compile with only one warning about 
the unreferenced function argument 'c'. Now we hand-optimize the 
assembly code and insert an #define USE_ASSEMBLY (1) and finally 
have:

unsigned char __far __at(0x7f00) buf[0x100];
unsigned char head, tail;
#define USE_ASSEMBLY (1)

#if !USE_ASSEMBLY

void to_buffer( unsigned char c )
{
    if( head != (unsigned char)(tail-1) )
        buf[ head++ ] = c;
}

#else

void to_buffer( unsigned char c )
{
    c; // to avoid warning: unreferenced function argument
    _asm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
        ; save used registers here. 
        ; If we were still using r2,r3 we would have to push them 
here. 
; if( head != (unsigned char)(tail-1) )
        mov  a,_tail
        dec  a
        xrl  a,_head
        ; we could do an ANL a,#0x0f here to use a smaller buffer 
(see below)
        jz   t_b_end$
        ;
; buf[ head++ ] = c;
        mov  a,dpl        ; dpl holds lower byte of function 
argument
        mov  dpl,_head    ; buf is 0x100 byte aligned so head can 
be used directly
        mov  dph,#(_buf>>8)
        movx @dptr,a
        inc  _head
        ; we could do an ANL _head,#0x0f here to use a smaller 
buffer (see above)
t_b_end$:
        ; restore used registers here 
    _endasm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index];
}
#endif

The inline assembler code can contain any valid code understood 
by the assembler, this includes any assembler directives and 
comment lines. The assembler does not like some characters like 
':' or ''' in comments. You'll find an 100+ pages assembler 
manual in sdcc/as/doc/asxhtm.html[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
 or online at [http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/as/doc/asxhtm.html]
 .

The compiler does not do any validation of the code within the 
_asm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] ... _endasm[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index]; keyword pair. Specifically it will not 
know which registers are used and thus register pushing/popping[LaTeX Command: index]
 has to be done manually. 

It is recommended that each assembly instruction (including 
labels) be placed in a separate line (as the example shows). When 
the --peep-asm[LaTeX Command: index] command line option is used, 
the inline assembler code will be passed through the peephole 
optimizer[LaTeX Command: index]. There are only a few (if any) 
cases where this option makes sense, it might cause some 
unexpected changes in the inline assembler code. Please go 
through the peephole optimizer rules defined in file 
SDCCpeeph.def before using this option.

  Naked Functions<sub:Naked-Functions>[LaTeX Command: index]

A special keyword may be associated with a function declaring it 
as _naked[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]. The _naked 
function modifier attribute prevents the compiler from generating 
prologue[LaTeX Command: index] and epilogue[LaTeX Command: index] 
code for that function. This means that the user is entirely 
responsible for such things as saving any registers that may need 
to be preserved, selecting the proper register bank, generating 
the return instruction at the end, etc. Practically, this means 
that the contents of the function must be written in inline 
assembler. This is particularly useful for interrupt functions, 
which can have a large (and often unnecessary) prologue/epilogue. 
For example, compare the code generated by these two functions:

volatile[LaTeX Command: index] data unsigned char counter;

void simpleInterrupt(void) __interrupt[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
 (1)
{
    counter++;
}

void nakedInterrupt(void) __interrupt (2) __naked
{
    _asm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
      inc     _counter ; does not change flags, no need to save 
psw
      reti    ; MUST explicitly include ret or reti in _naked 
function.
    _endasm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index];
}

For an 8051 target, the generated simpleInterrupt looks like:

Note, this is an outdated example, recent versions of SDCC 
generate
the same code for simpleInterrupt() and nakedInterrupt()!

_simpleInterrupt:
    push    acc
    push    b
    push    dpl
    push    dph
    push    psw
    mov     psw,#0x00
    inc     _counter
    pop     psw
    pop     dph
    pop     dpl
    pop     b
    pop     acc
    reti

whereas nakedInterrupt looks like:

_nakedInterrupt:
    inc    _counter ; does not change flags, no need to save psw
    reti            ; MUST explicitly include ret or reti in 
_naked function

The related directive #pragma exclude[LaTeX Command: index] 
allows a more fine grained control over pushing & popping[LaTeX Command: index]
 the registers.

While there is nothing preventing you from writing C code inside 
a _naked function, there are many ways to shoot yourself in the 
foot doing this, and it is recommended that you stick to inline 
assembler.

  Use of Labels within Inline Assembler

SDCC allows the use of in-line assembler with a few restrictions 
regarding labels. All labels defined within inline assembler code 
have to be of the form nnnnn$ where nnnnn is a number less than 
100 (which implies a limit of utmost 100 inline assembler labels 
per function).[footnote:
This is a slightly more stringent rule than absolutely necessary, 
but stays always on the safe side. Labels in the form of nnnnn$ 
are local labels in the assembler, locality of which is confined 
within two labels of the standard form. The compiler uses the 
same form for labels within a function (but starting from 
nnnnn=00100); and places always a standard label at the beginning 
of a function, thus limiting the locality of labels within the 
scope of the function. So, if the inline assembler part would be 
embedded into C-code, an improperly placed non-local label in the 
assembler would break up the reference space for labels created 
by the compiler for the C-code, leading to an assembling error.

The numeric part of local labels does not need to have 5 digits 
(although this is the form of labels output by the compiler), any 
valid integer will do. Please refer to the assemblers 
documentation for further details.
] 

_asm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
    mov     b,#10 
00001$: 
    djnz    b,00001$ 
_endasm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] ;

Inline assembler code cannot reference any C-labels, however it 
can reference labels[LaTeX Command: index] defined by the inline 
assembler, e.g.:

foo() { 
    /* some c code */ 
    _asm 
      ; some assembler code 
      ljmp 0003$ 
    _endasm; 
    /* some more c code */ 
clabel:  /* inline assembler cannot reference this label */ [footnote:
Here, the C-label clabel is translated by the compiler into a 
local label, so the locality of labels within the function is not 
broken.
]
    _asm
    0003$: ;label (can be referenced by inline assembler only) 
    _endasm[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] ; 
    /* some more c code */
}

In other words inline assembly code can access labels defined in 
inline assembly within the scope of the function. The same goes 
the other way, i.e. labels defines in inline assembly can not be 
accessed by C statements.

  Interfacing with Assembler Code[LaTeX Command: index]

  Global Registers used for Parameter Passing[LaTeX Command: index]

The compiler always uses the global registers DPL, DPH[LaTeX Command: index]
[LaTeX Command: index], B[LaTeX Command: index] and ACC[LaTeX Command: index]
 to pass the first (non-bit) parameter to a function, and also to 
pass the return value [LaTeX Command: index]of function; 
according to the following scheme: one byte return value in DPL, 
two byte value in DPL (LSB) and DPH (MSB). three byte values 
(generic pointers) in DPH, DPL and B, and four byte values in 
DPH, DPL, B and ACC. Generic pointers[LaTeX Command: index] 
contain type of accessed memory in B: 0x00 -- xdata/far, 0x40 -- 
idata/near -- , 0x60 -- pdata, 0x80 -- code.

The second parameter onwards is either allocated on the stack 
(for reentrant routines or if --stack-auto is used) or in 
data/xdata memory (depending on the memory model).

Bit parameters are passed in a virtual register called 'bits' in 
bit-addressable space for reentrant functions or allocated 
directly in bit memory otherwise.

Functions (with two or more parameters or bit parameters) that 
are called through function pointers[LaTeX Command: index] must 
therefor be reentrant so the compiler knows how to pass the 
parameters.

  Registers usage

Unless the called function is declared as _naked[LaTeX Command: index]
, or the --callee-saves[LaTeX Command: index]/--all-callee-saves 
command line option or the corresponding callee_saves pragma are 
used, the caller will save the registers (R0-R7) around the call, 
so the called function can destroy they content freely.

If the called function is not declared as _naked, the caller will 
swap register banks around the call, if caller and callee use 
different register banks (having them defined by the _using 
modifier). 

The called function can also use DPL, DPH, B and ACC observing 
that they are used for parameter/return value passing.

  Assembler Routine (non-reentrant)

In the following example[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
 the function c_func calls an assembler routine asm_func, which 
takes two parameters[LaTeX Command: index].

extern int asm_func(unsigned char, unsigned char);

int c_func (unsigned char i, unsigned char j)
{
    return asm_func(i,j);
}

int main()
{
    return c_func(10,9);
}

The corresponding assembler function is:

.globl _asm_func_PARM_2 
        .globl _asm_func 
        .area OSEG 
_asm_func_PARM_2:
        .ds    1 
        .area CSEG 
_asm_func: 
        mov    a,dpl 
        add    a,_asm_func_PARM_2 
        mov    dpl,a 
        mov    dph[LaTeX Command: index],#0x00 
        ret

The parameter naming convention is _<function_name>_PARM_<n>, 
where n is the parameter number starting from 1, and counting 
from the left. The first parameter is passed in DPH, DPL, B and 
ACC according to the description above. The variable name for the 
second parameter will be _<function_name>_PARM_2.

Assemble the assembler routine with the following command:

asx8051 -losg asmfunc.asm

Then compile and link the assembler routine to the C source file 
with the following command:

sdcc cfunc.c asmfunc.rel

  Assembler Routine (reentrant)

In this case[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] the 
second parameter[LaTeX Command: index] onwards will be passed on 
the stack, the parameters are pushed from right to left i.e. 
before the call the second leftmost parameter will be on the top 
of the stack (the leftmost parameter is passed in registers). 
Here is an example:

extern int asm_func(unsigned char, unsigned char, unsigned char) 
reentrant;

int c_func (unsigned char i, unsigned char j, unsigned char k) 
reentrant 
{ 
    return asm_func(i,j,k); 
} 

int main() 
{ 
    return c_func(10,9,8); 
}

The corresponding (unoptimized) assembler routine is:

.globl _asm_func 
_asm_func: 
    push _bp 
    mov  _bp,sp      ;stack contains: _bp, return address, second 
parameter, third parameter
    mov  r2,dpl
    mov  a,_bp
    add  a,#0xfd     ;calculate pointer to the second parameter
    mov  r0,a 
    mov  a,_bp 
    add  a,#0xfc     ;calculate pointer to the rightmost 
parameter
    mov  r1,a 
    mov  a,@r0
    add  a,@r1
    add  a,r2        ;calculate the result (= sum of all three 
parameters)
    mov  dpl,a       ;return value goes into dptr (cast into int)
    mov  dph,#0x00 
    mov  sp,_bp 
    pop  _bp 
    ret

The compiling and linking procedure remains the same, however 
note the extra entry & exit linkage required for the assembler 
code, _bp is the stack frame pointer and is used to compute the 
offset into the stack for parameters and local variables.



  int (16 bit)[LaTeX Command: index] and long (32 bit)[LaTeX Command: index]
   Support

For signed & unsigned int (16 bit) and long (32 bit) variables, 
division, multiplication and modulus operations are implemented 
by support routines. These support routines are all developed in 
ANSI-C to facilitate porting to other MCUs, although some model 
specific assembler optimizations are used. The following files 
contain the described routines, all of them can be found in 
<installdir>/share/sdcc/lib.



+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| Function      | Description                              |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _mulint.c     | 16 bit multiplication                    |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _divsint.c    |  signed 16 bit division (calls _divuint) |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _divuint.c    |  unsigned 16 bit division                |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _modsint.c    | signed 16 bit modulus (calls _moduint)   |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _moduint.c    | unsigned 16 bit modulus                  |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _mullong.c    | 32 bit multiplication                    |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _divslong.c   |  signed 32 division (calls _divulong)    |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _divulong.c   | unsigned 32 division                     |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _modslong.c   |  signed 32 bit modulus (calls _modulong) |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+
| _modulong.c   | unsigned 32 bit modulus                  |
+---------------+------------------------------------------+



Since they are compiled as non-reentrant[LaTeX Command: index], 
interrupt[LaTeX Command: index] service routines should not do 
any of the above operations. If this is unavoidable then the 
above routines will need to be compiled with the --stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index]
 option, after which the source program will have to be compiled 
with --int-long-reent[LaTeX Command: index] option. Notice that 
you don't have to call these routines directly. The compiler will 
use them automatically every time an integer operation is 
required.

  Floating Point Support[LaTeX Command: index]

SDCC supports IEEE (single precision 4 bytes) floating point 
numbers. The floating point support routines are derived from 
gcc's floatlib.c and consist of the following routines:



+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| Function     | Description                                    |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fsadd.c     | add floating point numbers                     |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fssub.c     | subtract floating point numbers                |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fsdiv.c     | divide floating point numbers                  |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fsmul.c     | multiply floating point numbers                |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fs2uchar.c  | convert floating point to unsigned char        |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fs2char.c   | convert floating point to signed char          |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fs2uint.c   | convert floating point to unsigned int         |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fs2int.c    | convert floating point to signed int           |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fs2ulong.c  | convert floating point to unsigned long        |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _fs2long.c   | convert floating point to signed long          |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _uchar2fs.c  | convert unsigned char to floating point        |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _char2fs.c   | convert char to floating point number          |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _uint2fs.c   | convert unsigned int to floating point         |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _int2fs.c    | convert int to floating point numbers          |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _ulong2fs.c  | convert unsigned long to floating point number |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| _long2fs.c   | convert long to floating point number          |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+



These support routines are developed in ANSI-C so there is room 
for space and speed improvement[footnote:
These floating point routines (not sinf(), cosf(), ...) for the 
mcs51 are implemented in assembler. 
]. Note if all these routines are used simultaneously the data 
space might overflow. For serious floating point usage the large 
model might be needed. Also notice that you don't have to call 
this routines directly. The compiler will use them automatically 
every time a floating point operation is required.



  Library Routines[LaTeX Command: index]

<pending: this is messy and incomplete - a little more 
information is in sdcc/doc/libdoc.txt >

  Compiler support routines (_gptrget, _mulint etc.)

  Stdclib functions (puts, printf, strcat etc.)

  <stdio.h>

  getchar(), putchar()

[LaTeX Command: index]As usual on embedded systems you have to 
provide your own getchar()[LaTeX Command: index] and putchar()[LaTeX Command: index]
 routines. SDCC does not know whether the system connects to a 
serial line with or without handshake, LCD, keyboard or other 
device. And whether a lf to crlf conversion within putchar() is 
intended. You'll find examples for serial routines f.e. in 
sdcc/device/lib. For the mcs51 this minimalistic polling 
putchar() routine might be a start:

void putchar (char c) { 
    while (!TI)    /* assumes UART is initialized */
        ;
    TI = 0;
    SBUF = c;
}

  printf()

The default printf()[LaTeX Command: index] implementation in 
printf_large.c does not support float (except on ds390). To 
enable this recompile it with the option -DUSE_FLOATS=1[LaTeX Command: index]
 on the command line. Use --model-large[LaTeX Command: index] for 
the mcs51 port, since this uses a lot of memory.

If you're short on code memory you might want to use 
printf_small()[LaTeX Command: index] instead of printf(). For the 
mcs51 there additionally are assembly versions printf_tiny()[LaTeX Command: index]
 (subset of printf using less than 270 bytes) and printf_fast()[LaTeX Command: index]
 and printf_fast_f()[LaTeX Command: index] (floating-point aware 
version of printf_fast) which should fit the requirements of many 
embedded systems (printf_fast() can be customized by unsetting 
#defines to not support long variables and field widths). Be sure 
to use only one of these printf options within a project.


Feature matrix of different printf options on mcs51.


+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| mcs51                                                                                                                                                                     | printf[LaTeX Command: index]  | printf USE_FLOATS=1  |      printf_small        |  printf_fast    |                                        printf_fast_f                                        |                                           printf_tiny                                           |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| filename                                                                                                                                                                  |        printf_large.c         |   printf_large.c     |        printfl.c         | printf_fast.c   |                                       printf_fast_f.c                                       |                                          printf_tiny.c                                          |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ”Hello World” size

small / large                                                                                                                                         |         1.7k / 2.4k           |     4.3k / 5.6k      |       1.2k / 1.8k        |  1.3k / 1.3k    |                                         1.9k / 1.9k                                         |                                          0.44k / 0.44k                                          |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| code size

small / large                                                                                                                                                  |         1.4k / 2.0k           |     2.8k / 3.7k      | 0.45k / 0.47k (+ _ltoa)  |  1.2k / 1.2k    |                                         1.6k / 1.6k                                         |                                          0.26k / 0.26k                                          |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| formats                                                                                                                                                                   |           cdiopsux            |      cdfiopsux       |          cdosx           |     cdsux       |                                           cdfsux                                            |                                              cdsux                                              |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| long (32 bit) support                                                                                                                                                     |              x                |          x           |            x             |       x         |                                              x                                              |                                                -                                                |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| byte arguments on stack                                                                                                                                                   |              b                |          b           |            -             |       -         |                                              -                                              |                                                -                                                |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| float format[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                                                                        |              -                |         %f           |            -             |       -         | %f[footnote:
Range limited to +/- 4294967040, precision limited to 8 digits 
past decimal
] |                                                -                                                |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| float formats %e %g                                                                                                                                                       |              -                |          -           |            -             |       -         |                                              -                                              |                                                -                                                |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| field width                                                                                                                                                               |              x                |          x           |            -             |       x         |                                              x                                              |                                                -                                                |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| string speed[footnote:
Execution time of printf("%s%c%s%c%c%c", "Hello", ' ', "World", 
'!', '\r', '\n'); standard 8051 @ 22.1184 MHz, empty putchar()
],

small / large  |        1.52 / 2.59 ms         |   1.53 / 2.62 ms     |     0.92 / 0.93 ms       | 0.45 / 0.45 ms  |                                       0.46 / 0.46 ms                                        |                                          0.45 / 0.45 ms                                         |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| int speed[footnote:
Execution time of printf("%d", -12345); standard 8051 @ 22.1184 
MHz, empty putchar()
],

small / large                                               |        3.01 / 3.61 ms         |   3.01 / 3.61 ms     |     3.51 / 18.13 ms      | 0.22 / 0.22 ms  |                                       0.23 / 0.23 ms                                        |  0.25 / 0.25 ms[footnote:
printf_tiny integer speed is data dependent, worst case is 0.33 
ms
] |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| long speed[footnote:
Execution time of printf("%ld", -123456789); standard 8051 @ 
22.1184 MHz, empty putchar()
],

small / large                                         |        5.37 / 6.31 ms         |   5.37 / 6.31 ms     |     8.71 / 40.65 ms      | 0.40 / 0.40 ms  |                                       0.40 / 0.40 ms                                        |                                                -                                                |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| float speed[footnote:
Execution time of printf("%.3f", -12345.678); standard 8051 @ 
22.1184 MHz, empty putchar()
],

small / large                                       |              -                |   7.49 / 22.47 ms    |            -             |       -         |                                       1.04 / 1.04 ms                                        |                                                -                                                |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+----------------------+--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+


  <malloc.h>[LaTeX Command: index]

As of SDCC 2.6.2 you no longer need to call an initialization 
routine before using dynamic memory allocation[LaTeX Command: index]
 and a default heap[LaTeX Command: index] space of 1024 bytes is 
provided for malloc to allocate memory from. If you need a 
different heap size you need to recompile _heap.c with the 
required size defined in HEAP_SIZE. It is recommended to make a 
copy of this file into your project directory and compile it 
there with:

sdcc -c _heap.c -D HEAD_SIZE=2048

And then link it with:

sdcc main.rel _heap.rel

  Math functions (sinf, powf, sqrtf etc.)

  <math.h>

See definitions in file <math.h>.

  Other libraries

Libraries[LaTeX Command: index] included in SDCC should have a 
license at least as liberal as the GNU Lesser General Public 
License[LaTeX Command: index] LGPL.



If you have ported some library or want to share experience about 
some code which f.e. falls into any of these categories Busses (I^{\textrm{2}}
C, CAN, Ethernet, Profibus, Modbus, USB, SPI, JTAG ...), Media 
(IDE, Memory cards, eeprom, flash...), En-/Decryption, Remote 
debugging, Realtime kernel, Keyboard, LCD, RTC, FPGA, PID then 
the sdcc-user mailing list [http://sourceforge.net/mail/?group_id=599]
 would certainly like to hear about it.

Programmers coding for embedded systems are not especially famous 
for being enthusiastic, so don't expect a big hurray but as the 
mailing list is searchable these references are very valuable. 
Let's help to create a climate where information is shared.



  Memory Models

  MCS51 Memory Models[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

  Small, Medium and Large

SDCC allows three memory models for MCS51 code, small, medium and 
large. Modules compiled with different memory models should never 
be combined together or the results would be unpredictable. The 
library routines supplied with the compiler are compiled as 
small, medium and large. The compiled library modules are 
contained in separate directories as small, medium and large so 
that you can link to the appropriate set.

When the medium or large model is used all variables declared 
without a storage class will be allocated into the external ram, 
this includes all parameters and local variables (for 
non-reentrant[LaTeX Command: index] functions). When the small 
model is used variables without storage class are allocated in 
the internal ram.

Judicious usage of the processor specific storage classes[LaTeX Command: index]
 and the 'reentrant' function type will yield much more efficient 
code, than using the large model. Several optimizations are 
disabled when the program is compiled using the large model, it 
is therefore recommended that the small model be used unless 
absolutely required.

  External Stack<sub:External-Stack>[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

The external stack (--xstack option[LaTeX Command: index]) is 
located in pdata[LaTeX Command: index] memory (usually at the 
start of the external ram segment) and uses all unused space in 
pdata (max. 256 bytes). When --xstack option is used to compile 
the program, the parameters and local variables[LaTeX Command: index]
 of all reentrant functions are allocated in this area. This 
option is provided for programs with large stack space 
requirements. When used with the --stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index]
 option, all parameters and local variables are allocated on the 
external stack (note: support libraries will need to be 
recompiled with the same options. There is a predefined target in 
the library makefile).

The compiler outputs the higher order address byte of the 
external ram segment into port P2[LaTeX Command: index] (see also 
section [sub:MCS51-variants]), therefore when using the External 
Stack option, this port may not be used by the application 
program.

  DS390 Memory Model[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

The only model supported is Flat 24[LaTeX Command: index]. This 
generates code for the 24 bit contiguous addressing mode of the 
Dallas DS80C390 part. In this mode, up to four meg of external 
RAM or code space can be directly addressed. See the data sheets 
at www.dalsemi.com for further information on this part.

Note that the compiler does not generate any code to place the 
processor into 24 bitmode (although tinibios in the ds390 
libraries will do that for you). If you don't use tinibios[LaTeX Command: index]
, the boot loader or similar code must ensure that the processor 
is in 24 bit contiguous addressing mode before calling the SDCC 
startup code.

Like the --model-large option, variables will by default be 
placed into the XDATA segment. 

Segments may be placed anywhere in the 4 meg address space using 
the usual --*-loc options. Note that if any segments are located 
above 64K, the -r flag must be passed to the linker to generate 
the proper segment relocations, and the Intel HEX output format 
must be used. The -r flag can be passed to the linker by using 
the option -Wl-r on the SDCC command line. However, currently the 
linker can not handle code segments > 64k.

  Pragmas<sec:Pragmas>[LaTeX Command: index]

Pragmas are used to turn on and/or off certain compiler options. 
Some of them are closely related to corresponding command-line 
options (see section [sec:Command-Line-Options]).
Pragmas should be placed before and/or after a function, placing 
pragmas inside a function body could have unpredictable results.

SDCC supports the following #pragma directives:

  save[LaTeX Command: index] - this will save most current 
  options to the save/restore stack. See #pragma restore.

  restore[LaTeX Command: index] - will restore saved options from 
  the last save. saves & restores can be nested. SDCC uses a 
  save/restore stack: save pushes current options to the stack, 
  restore pulls current options from the stack. See #pragma save.


  callee_saves[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
  function1[,function2[,function3...]] <ite:callee_saves-function1[,function2[,function3...]]-->
  - The compiler by default uses a caller saves convention for 
  register saving across function calls, however this can cause 
  unnecessary register pushing and popping[LaTeX Command: index] 
  when calling small functions from larger functions. This option 
  can be used to switch off the register saving convention for 
  the function names specified. The compiler will not save 
  registers when calling these functions, extra code need to be 
  manually inserted at the entry and exit for these functions to 
  save and restore the registers used by these functions, this 
  can SUBSTANTIALLY reduce code and improve run time performance 
  of the generated code. In the future the compiler (with inter 
  procedural analysis) may be able to determine the appropriate 
  scheme to use for each function call. If --callee-saves command 
  line option is used (see page [lyx:--callee-saves-function1[,function2][,function3]...]
  ), the function names specified in #pragma callee_saves[LaTeX Command: index]
   is appended to the list of functions specified in the command 
  line.

  exclude[LaTeX Command: index] none | {acc[,b[,dpl[,dph]]] - The 
  exclude pragma disables the generation of pairs of push/pop[LaTeX Command: index]
   instructions in Interrupt[LaTeX Command: index] Service 
  Routines. The directive should be placed immediately before the 
  ISR function definition and it affects ALL ISR functions 
  following it. To enable the normal register saving for ISR 
  functions use #pragma exclude none[LaTeX Command: index]. See 
  also the related keyword _naked[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
  .

  less_pedantic[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] <ite:less_pedantic>
  - the compiler will not warn you anymore for obvious mistakes, 
  you're on your own now ;-( . See also the command line option -
  -less-pedantic [lyx:--less-pedantic]. 
More specifically, the following warnings will be disabled: 
  comparison is always [true/false] due to limited range of data 
  type (94); overflow in implicit constant conversion (158); [the 
  (in)famous] conditional flow changed by optimizer: so said 
  EVELYN the modified DOG (110); function '[function name]' must 
  return value (59). 
Furthermore, warnings of less importance (of PEDANTIC and INFO 
  warning level) are disabled, too, namely: constant value '[]', 
  out of range (81); [left/right] shifting more than size of 
  object changed to zero (116); unreachable code (126); integer 
  overflow in expression (165); unmatched #pragma save and 
  #pragma restore (170); comparison of 'signed char' with 
  'unsigned char' requires promotion to int (185); ISO C90 does 
  not support flexible array members (187); extended stack by 
  [number] bytes for compiler temp(s) :in function '[function 
  name]': [] (114); function '[function name]', # edges [number] 
  , # nodes [number] , cyclomatic complexity [number] (121).

  disable_warning <nnnn>[LaTeX Command: index] - the compiler 
  will not warn you anymore about warning number <nnnn>.

  nogcse[LaTeX Command: index] - will stop global common 
  subexpression elimination.

  noinduction[LaTeX Command: index] - will stop loop induction 
  optimizations.

  noinvariant[LaTeX Command: index] - will not do loop invariant 
  optimizations. For more details see Loop Invariants in section[sub:Loop-Optimizations]
  .

  noiv[LaTeX Command: index] - Do not generate interrupt[LaTeX Command: index]
   vector table[LaTeX Command: index] entries for all ISR 
  functions defined after the pragma. This is useful in cases 
  where the interrupt vector table must be defined manually, or 
  when there is a secondary, manually defined interrupt vector 
  table (e.g. for the autovector feature of the Cypress EZ-USB 
  FX2). More elegantly this can be achieved by obmitting the 
  optional interrupt number after the interrupt keyword, see 
  section [sub:Interrupt-Service-Routines] about interrupts.

  nojtbound[LaTeX Command: index] - will not generate code for 
  boundary value checking, when switch statements are turned into 
  jump-tables (dangerous). For more details see section [sub:'switch'-Statements]
  .

  noloopreverse[LaTeX Command: index] - Will not do loop reversal 
  optimization

  nooverlay[LaTeX Command: index] - the compiler will not overlay 
  the parameters and local variables of a function.

  stackauto[LaTeX Command: index]- See option --stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index]
   and section [sec:Parameters-and-Local-Variables] Parameters 
  and Local Variables.

  opt_code_speed [LaTeX Command: index]- The compiler will 
  optimize code generation towards fast code, possibly at the 
  expense of code size. Currently this has little effect.

  opt_code_size [LaTeX Command: index]- The compiler will 
  optimize code generation towards compact code, possibly at the 
  expense of code speed. Currently this has little effect.

  opt_code_balanced [LaTeX Command: index]- The compiler will 
  attempt to generate code that is both compact and fast, as long 
  as meeting one goal is not a detriment to the other (this is 
  the default). 

  std_sdcc89 [LaTeX Command: index]- Generally follow the C89 
  standard, but allow SDCC features that conflict with the 
  standard (default).

  std_c89 [LaTeX Command: index]- Follow the C89 standard and 
  disable SDCC features that conflict with the standard.

  std_sdcc99 [LaTeX Command: index]- Generally follow the C99 
  standard, but allow SDCC features that conflict with the 
  standard (incomplete support).

  std_c99 [LaTeX Command: index]- Follow the C99 standard and 
  disable SDCC features that conflict with the standard 
  (incomplete support).

  codeseg <name>[LaTeX Command: index]- Use this name (max. 8 
  characters) for the code segment. See option --codeseg.

  constseg <name>[LaTeX Command: index]- Use this name (max. 8 
  characters) for the const segment. See option --constseg.

The preprocessor SDCPP[LaTeX Command: index] supports the 
following #pragma directives:

  pedantic_parse_number[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
   (+ | -) <ite:pedantic_parse_number>- Pedantic parse numbers so 
  that situations like 0xfe-LO_B(3) are parsed properly and the 
  macro LO_B(3) gets expanded. Default is off. See also the -
  -pedantic-parse-number command line option [lyx:-pedantic-parse-number]
  . 
Below is an example on how to use this pragma. Note: this 
  functionality is not in conformance with standard!

#pragma pedantic_parse_number +[LaTeX Command: index]

#define LO_B(x) ((x) & 0xff)

unsigned char foo(void)
{
   unsigned char c=0xfe-LO_B(3);

   return c;
}


  preproc_asm[LaTeX Command: index] (+ | -) - switch _asm _endasm 
  block preprocessing on / off. Default is on. You use this prama 
  to define multilines of assembly code. This will prevent the 
  preprocessor from changing the formating required by assembly 
  code. Below is an example on how to use this pragma.

#pragma preproc_asm -[LaTeX Command: index]
#define MYDELAY _asm
   nop ;my assembly comment...
   nop
   nop
_endasm
#pragma preproc_asm +

void foo (void) 
{ 
    ... 
    MYDELAY;
    ... 
} 


  sdcc_hash[LaTeX Command: index] (+ | -) - Allow "naked" hash in 
  macro definition, for example:
#define DIR_LO(x) #(x & 0xff)
Default is off. Below is an example on how to use this pragma.

#pragma preproc_asm +
#pragma sdcc_hash +[LaTeX Command: index]

#define ROMCALL(x) \
   mov R6_B3, #(x & 0xff) \
   mov R7_B3, #((x >> 8) & 0xff) \
   lcall __romcall

...
_asm
ROMCALL(72)
_endasm;
...


Some of the pragmas are intended to be used to turn-on or off 
certain optimizations which might cause the compiler to generate 
extra stack and/or data space to store compiler generated 
temporary variables. This usually happens in large functions. 
Pragma directives should be used as shown in the following 
example, they are used to control options and optimizations for a 
given function. 

#pragma save[LaTeX Command: index]        /* save the current 
settings */ 
#pragma nogcse[LaTeX Command: index]      /* turnoff global 
subexpression elimination */ 
#pragma noinduction[LaTeX Command: index] /* turn off induction 
optimizations */ 
int foo () 
{ 
    ... 
    /* large code */ 
    ... 
} 
#pragma restore[LaTeX Command: index] /* turn the optimizations 
back on */

The compiler will generate a warning message when extra space is 
allocated. It is strongly recommended that the save and restore 
pragmas be used when changing options for a function.




  Defines Created by the Compiler

The compiler creates the following #defines[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
:



+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| #define                                                                                                                        | Description                                                                 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                                     | Always defined. Since version 2.5.6 the version number as an int 
(ex. 256) |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_mcs51[LaTeX Command: index] or SDCC_ds390[LaTeX Command: index]
 or SDCC_z80[LaTeX Command: index], etc.                  | depending on the model used (e.g.: -mds390)                                 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| __mcs51[LaTeX Command: index], __ds390[LaTeX Command: index], 
__hc08[LaTeX Command: index], __z80[LaTeX Command: index], etc  | depending on the model used (e.g. -mz80)                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_STACK_AUTO[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                          | when --stack-auto option is used                                            |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_MODEL_SMALL[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                         | when --model-small is used                                                  |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_MODEL_MEDIUM[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                        | when --model-medium is used                                                 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_MODEL_LARGE[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                         | when --model-large is used                                                  |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_USE_XSTACK[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                          | when --xstack option is used                                                |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_STACK_TENBIT[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                        | when -mds390 is used                                                        |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_MODEL_FLAT24[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                        | when -mds390 is used                                                        |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_REVISION[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                            | Always defined. SDCC svn revision number                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_PARMS_IN_BANK1[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                      | when --parms-in-bank1 is used                                               |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_FLOAT_REENT[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                         | when --float-reent is used                                                  |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_INT_LONG_REENT[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                      | when --int-long-reent is used                                               |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+


Notes on supported Processors

  MCS51 variants<sub:MCS51-variants>[LaTeX Command: index]

MCS51 processors are available from many vendors and come in many 
different flavours. While they might differ considerably in 
respect to Special Function Registers the core MCS51 is usually 
not modified or is kept compatible. 

  pdata access by SFR 

With the upcome of devices with internal xdata and flash memory 
devices using port P2[LaTeX Command: index] as dedicated I/O port 
is becoming more popular. Switching the high byte for pdata[LaTeX Command: index]
 access which was formerly done by port P2 is then achieved by a 
Special Function Register[LaTeX Command: index]. In 
well-established MCS51 tradition the address of this sfr is where 
the chip designers decided to put it. Needless to say that they 
didn't agree on a common name either. So that the startup code 
can correctly initialize xdata variables, you should define an 
sfr with the name _XPAGE[LaTeX Command: index] at the appropriate 
location if the default, port P2, is not used for this. Some 
examples are:

__sfr __at (0x85) _XPAGE; /* Ramtron VRS51 family a.k.a. MPAGE */

__sfr __at (0x92) _XPAGE; /* Cypress EZ-USB family, Texas 
Instruments (Chipcon) a.k.a. MPAGE */

__sfr __at (0x91) _XPAGE; /* Infineon (Siemens) C500 family 
a.k.a. XPAGE */

__sfr __at (0xaf) _XPAGE; /* some Silicon Labs (Cygnal) chips 
a.k.a. EMI0CN */

__sfr __at (0xaa) _XPAGE; /* some Silicon Labs (Cygnal) chips 
a.k.a. EMI0CN */

For more exotic implementations further customizations may be 
needed. See section [sub:Startup-Code] for other possibilities.

  Other Features available by SFR

Some MCS51 variants offer features like Double DPTR[LaTeX Command: index]
, multiple DPTR, decrementing DPTR, 16x16 Multiply. These are 
currently not used for the MCS51 port. If you absolutely need 
them you can fall back to inline assembly or submit a patch to 
SDCC.

  Bankswitching

Bankswitching[LaTeX Command: index] (a.k.a. code banking[LaTeX Command: index]
) is a technique to increase the code space above the 64k limit 
of the 8051.

  Hardware


             +---------+--------+-------+
  8000-FFFF  | bank1   | bank2  | bank3 |
             +---------+--------+-------+
             +---------                  
  0000-7FFF  | common  |                 
             +---------                  
        SiLabs C8051F120 example         


Usually the hardware uses some sfr (an output port or an internal 
sfr) to select a bank and put it in the banked area of the memory 
map. The selected bank usually becomes active immediately upon 
assignment to this sfr and when running inside a bank it will 
switch out this code it is currently running. Therefor you cannot 
jump or call directly from one bank to another and need to use a 
so-called trampoline in the common area. For SDCC an example 
trampoline is in crtbank.asm and you may need to change it to 
your 8051 derivative or schematic. The presented code is written 
for the C8051F120.

When calling a banked function SDCC will put the LSB of the 
functions address in register R0, the MSB in R1 and the bank in 
R2 and then call this trampoline __sdcc_banked_call. The current 
selected bank is saved on the stack, the new bank is selected and 
an indirect jump is made. When the banked function returns it 
jumps to __sdcc_banked_ret which restores the previous bank and 
returns to the caller.

  Software

When writing banked software using SDCC you need to use some 
special keywords and options. You also need to take over a bit of 
work from the linker.

To create a function that can be called from another bank it 
requires the keyword banked[LaTeX Command: index]. The caller 
must see this in the prototype of the callee and the callee needs 
it for a proper return. Called functions within the same bank as 
the caller do not need the banked keyword nor do functions in the 
common area. Beware: SDCC does not know or check if functions are 
in the same bank. This is your responsibility!

Normally all functions you write end up in the segment CSEG. If 
you want a function explicitly to reside in the common area put 
it in segment HOME. This applies for instance to interrupt 
service routines as they should not be banked.

Functions that need to be in a switched bank must be put in a 
named segment. The name can be mostly anything upto eight 
characters (e.g. BANK1). To do this you either use --codeseg 
BANK1 (See [lyx:-codeseg]) on the command line when compiling or 
#pragma codeseg BANK1 (See [sec:Pragmas]) at the top of the C 
source file. The segment name always applies to the whole source 
file and generated object so functions for different banks need 
to be defined in different source files.

When linking your objects you need to tell the linker where to 
put your segments. To do this you use the following command line 
option to SDCC: -Wl-b BANK1=0x18000 (See [lyx:-Wl option]). This 
sets the virtual start address of this segment. It sets the 
banknumber to 0x01 and maps the bank to 0x8000 and up. The linker 
will not check for overflows, again this is your responsibility.





  DS400 port

The DS80C400[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
microcontroller has a rich set of peripherals. In its built-in 
ROM library it includes functions to access some of the features, 
among them is a TCP stack with IP4 and IP6 support. Library 
headers (currently in beta status) and other files are provided 
at [ftp://ftp.dalsemi.com/pub/tini/ds80c400/c_libraries/sdcc/index.html]
. 



  The Z80 and gbz80 port

SDCC can target both the Zilog Z80[LaTeX Command: index] and the 
Nintendo Gameboy's Z80-like gbz80[LaTeX Command: index]. The Z80 
port is passed through the same regressions tests[LaTeX Command: index]
 (see section [sec:Quality-control]) as the MCS51 and DS390 
ports, so floating point support, support for long variables and 
bitfield support is fine. See mailing lists and forums about 
interrupt routines.

As always, the code is the authoritative reference - see 
z80/ralloc.c and z80/gen.c. The stack[LaTeX Command: index] frame 
is similar to that generated by the IAR Z80 compiler. IX is used 
as the base pointer, HL and IY are used as a temporary registers, 
and BC and DE are available for holding variables. Return values[LaTeX Command: index]
 for the Z80 port are stored in L (one byte), HL (two bytes), or 
DEHL (four bytes). The gbz80 port use the same set of registers 
for the return values, but in a different order of significance: 
E (one byte), DE (two bytes), or HLDE (four bytes).



  The HC08 port

The port to the Freescale/Motorola HC08[LaTeX Command: index] 
family has been added in October 2003, and is still undergoing 
some basic development. The code generator is complete, but the 
register allocation is still quite unoptimized. Some of the 
SDCC's standard C library functions have embedded non-HC08 inline 
assembly and so are not yet usable.

The HC08 port passes the regression test suite (see section [sec:Quality-control]
).



  The PIC14[LaTeX Command: index] port

The PIC14 port adds support for Microchip[LaTeX Command: index]^{\text{TM}}
 PIC[LaTeX Command: index]^{\text{TM}} MCUs with 14 bit wide 
instructions. This port is not yet mature and still lacks many 
features. However, it can work for simple code.

Currently supported devices include:

12F: 629, 635, 675, 683

16C: 432, 433

16C: 554, 557, 558

16C: 62, 620, 620a, 621, 621a, 622, 622a, 63a, 65b

16C: 71, 710, 711, 715, 717, 72, 73b, 745, 74b, 765, 770, 771, 
773, 774, 781, 782

16C: 925, 926

16CR: 620a, 73, 74, 76, 77

16F: 616, 627, 627a, 628, 628a, 630, 636, 639, 648, 648a, 676, 
684, 685, 687, 688, 689, 690

16F: 716, 72, 73, 737, 74, 747, 76, 767, 77, 777, 785

16F: 818, 819, 84, 84a, 87, 870, 871, 872, 873, 873a, 874, 874a, 
876, 876a, 877, 877a, 88, 886, 887

16F: 913, 914, 916, 917, 946

26HV: 626, 785

An up-to-date list of currently supported devices can be obtained 
via sdcc -mpic14 -phelp foo.c (foo.c must exist...).

  PIC Code Pages[LaTeX Command: index] and Memory Banks[LaTeX Command: index]

The linker organizes allocation for the code page and RAM banks. 
It does not have intimate knowledge of the code flow. It will put 
all the code section of a single .asm file into a single code 
page. In order to make use of multiple code pages, separate asm 
files must be used. The compiler assigns all static functions of 
a single .c file into the same code page.

To get the best results, follow these guidelines:

  Make local functions static, as non static functions require 
  code page selection overhead.
Due to the way sdcc handles functions, place called functions 
  prior to calling functions in the file wherever possible: 
  Otherwise sdcc will insert unneccessary pagesel directives 
  around the call, believing that the called function is 
  externally defined.

  For devices that have multiple code pages it is more efficient 
  to use the same number of files as pages: Use up to 4 separate 
  .c files for the 16F877, but only 2 files for the 16F874. This 
  way the linker can put the code for each file into different 
  code pages and there will be less page selection overhead.

  And as for any 8 bit micro (especially for PIC14 as they have a 
  very simple instruction set), use `unsigned char' wherever 
  possible instead of `int'.

  Adding New Devices to the Port 

Adding support for a new 14bit PIC MCU requires the following 
steps:

  Create a new device description.
Each device is described in two files: pic16f*.h and pic16f*.c. 
  These files primarily define SFRs, structs to access their 
  bits, and symbolic configuration options. Both files can be 
  generated from gputils' .inc files using the perl script 
  support/scripts/inc2h.pl. This file also contains further 
  instructions on how to proceed.

  Copy the .h file into SDCC's include path and either add the .c 
  file to your project or copy it to device/lib/pic/libdev. 
  Afterwards, rebuild and install the libraries.

  Edit pic14devices.txt in SDCC's include path 
  (device/include/pic/ in the source tree or 
  /usr/local/share/sdcc/include/pic after installation).
You need to add a device specification here to make the memory 
  layout (code banks, RAM, aliased memory regions, ...) known to 
  the compiler. Probably you can copy and modify an existing 
  entry. The file format is documented at the top of the file.

  Interrupt Code

For the interrupt function, use the keyword `__interrupt'[LaTeX Command: index]
 with level number of 0 (PIC14 only has 1 interrupt so this 
number is only there to avoid a syntax error - it ought to be 
fixed). E.g.:

void Intr(void) __interrupt 0
{
  T0IF = 0; /* Clear timer interrupt */
}

  Linking and Assembling

For assembling you can use either GPUTILS'[LaTeX Command: index] 
gpasm.exe or MPLAB's mpasmwin.exe. GPUTILS are available from [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gputils]
. For linking you can use either GPUTILS' gplink or MPLAB's 
mplink.exe. If you use MPLAB and an interrupt function then the 
linker script file vectors section will need to be enlarged to 
link with mplink.

Here is a Makefile using GPUTILS:

.c.o:
        sdcc -V -mpic14 -p16f877 -c $< 

$(PRJ).hex: $(OBJS) 
        gplink -m -s $(PRJ).lkr -o $(PRJ).hex $(OBJS) libsdcc.lib

Here is a Makefile using MPLAB:

.c.o: 
        sdcc -S -V -mpic14 -p16f877 $< 
        mpasmwin /q /o $*.asm

$(PRJ).hex: $(OBJS) 
        mplink /v $(PRJ).lkr /m $(PRJ).map /o $(PRJ).hex $(OBJS) 
libsdcc.lib

Please note that indentations within a Makefile have to be done 
with a tabulator character.

  Command-Line Options

Besides the switches common to all SDCC backends, the PIC14 port 
accepts the following options (for an updated list see sdcc -
-help):

  --debug-xtra[LaTeX Command: index] emit debug info in assembly 
  output

  --no-pcode-opt[LaTeX Command: index] disable (slightly faulty) 
  optimization on pCode

  --stack-loc[LaTeX Command: index] sets the lowest address of 
  the argument passing stack (defaults to a suitably large shared 
  databank to reduce BANKSEL overhead)

  --stack-size[LaTeX Command: index] sets the size if the 
  argument passing stack (default: 16, minimum: 4)

  Environment Variables

The PIC14 port recognizes the following environment variables:

  SDCC_PIC14_SPLIT_LOCALS If set and not empty, sdcc will 
  allocate each temporary register (the ones called r0xNNNN) in a 
  section of its own. By default (if this variable is unset), 
  sdcc tries to cluster registers in sections in order to reduce 
  the BANKSEL overhead when accessing them.

  The Library

The PIC14 library currently only contains support routines 
required by the compiler to implement multiplication, division, 
and floating point support. No libc-like replacement is available 
at the moment, though many of the common sdcc library sources (in 
device/lib) should also compile with the PIC14 port.

  error: missing definition for symbol ``__gptrget1''

The PIC14 port uses library routines to provide more complex 
operations like multiplication, division/modulus and (generic) 
pointer dereferencing. In order to add these routines to your 
project, you must link with PIC14's libsdcc.lib. For single 
source file projects this is done automatically, more complex 
projects must add libsdcc.lib to the linker's arguments. Make 
sure you also add an include path for the library (using the -I 
switch to the linker)!

  Processor mismatch in file ``XXX''.

This warning can usually be ignored due to the very good 
compatibility amongst 14bit PIC[LaTeX Command: index] devices.

You might also consider recompiling the library for your specific 
device by changing the ARCH=p16f877 (default target) entry in 
device/lib/pic/Makefile.in and device/lib/pic/Makefile to reflect 
your device. This might even improve performance for smaller 
devices as unneccesary BANKSELs might be removed.

  Known Bugs

  Function arguments

Functions with variable argument lists (like printf) are not yet 
supported. Similarly, taking the address of the first argument 
passed into a function does not work: It is currently passed in 
WREG and has no address...

  Regression tests fail

Though the small subset of regression tests in src/regression 
passes, SDCC regression test suite does not, indicating that 
there are still major bugs in the port. However, many smaller 
projects have successfully used SDCC in the past...




  The PIC16[LaTeX Command: index] port

The PIC16 port adds support for Microchip[LaTeX Command: index]^{\text{TM}}
 PIC[LaTeX Command: index]^{\text{TM}} MCUs with 16 bit wide 
instructions. Currently this family of microcontrollers contains 
the PIC18Fxxx and PIC18Fxxxx; devices supported by the port 
include:

18F: 242, 248, 252, 258, 442, 448, 452, 458

18F: 1220, 1320

18F: 2220, 2221, 2320, 2321, 2331, 2431, 2455, 24j10, 2525, 2550, 
25j10, 2620

18F: 4220, 4221, 4320, 4321, 4331, 4431, 4455, 44j10, 4520, 4525, 
4550, 45j10, 4620

18F: 6520, 6620, 6680, 6720

18F: 8520, 8620, 8680, 8720

  Global Options

PIC16 port supports the standard command line arguments as 
supposed, with the exception of certain cases that will be 
mentioned in the following list:

  --callee-saves[LaTeX Command: index] See --all-callee-saves

  --fommit-frame-pointer[LaTeX Command: index] Frame pointer will 
  be omitted when the function uses no local variables.

  Port Specific Options[LaTeX Command: index]

The port specific options appear after the global options in the 
sdcc --help output.

  Code Generation Options

These options influence the generated assembler code.

  --pstack-model=[model] Used in conjuction with the command 
  above. Defines the stack model to be used, valid stack models 
  are:

  small Selects small stack model. 8 bit stack and frame 
  pointers. Supports 256 bytes stack size.

  large Selects large stack model. 16 bit stack and frame 
  pointers. Supports 65536 bytes stack size.

  --pno-banksel Do not generate BANKSEL assembler directives.

  --extended Enable extended instruction set/literal offset 
  addressing mode. Use with care!

  Optimization Options

  --obanksel=n Set optimization level for inserting BANKSELs.


  0 no optimization

  1 checks previous used register and if it is the same then does 
  not emit BANKSEL, accounts only for labels.

  2 tries to check the location of (even different) symbols and 
  removes BANKSELs if they are in the same bank. 
Important: There might be problems if the linker script has data 
  sections across bank borders!

  --denable-peeps Force the usage of peepholes. Use with care.

  --optimize-goto Try to use (conditional) BRA instead of GOTO.

  --optimize-cmp Try to optimize some compares.

  --optimize-df Analyze the dataflow of the generated code and 
  improve it.

  Assembling Options

  --asm= Sets the full path and name of an external assembler to 
  call.

  --mplab-comp MPLAB[LaTeX Command: index] compatibility option. 
  Currently only suppresses special gpasm directives.

  Linking Options

  --link= Sets the full path and name of an external linker to 
  call.

  --preplace-udata-with=[kword] Replaces the default udata 
  keyword for allocating unitialized data variables with [kword]. 
  Valid keywords are: "udata_acs", "udata_shr", "udata_ovr".

  --ivt-loc=n Place the interrupt vector table at address n. 
  Useful for bootloaders.

  --nodefaultlibs Do not link default libraries when linking.

  --use-crt= Use a custom run-time module instead of the 
  defaults.

  --no-crt Don't link the default run-time modules

  Debugging Options

Debugging options enable extra debugging information in the 
output files.

  --debug-xtra Similar to --debug[LaTeX Command: index], but 
  dumps more information.

  --debug-ralloc Force register allocator to dump <source>.d file 
  with debugging information. <source> is the name of the file 
  being compiled.

  --pcode-verbose Enable pcode debugging information in 
  translation.

  --calltree Dump call tree in .calltree file.

  --gstack Trace push/pops for stack pointer overflow.

  Enviroment Variables

There is a number of enviromental variables that can be used when 
running SDCC to enable certain optimizations or force a specific 
program behaviour. these variables are primarily for debugging 
purposes so they can be enabled/disabled at will.

Currently there is only two such variables available:

  OPTIMIZE_BITFIELD_POINTER_GET When this variable exists, 
  reading of structure bitfields is optimized by directly loading 
  FSR0 with the address of the bitfield structure. Normally SDCC 
  will cast the bitfield structure to a bitfield pointer and then 
  load FSR0. This step saves data ram and code space for 
  functions that make heavy use of bitfields. (i.e., 80 bytes of 
  code space are saved when compiling malloc.c with this option). 

  NO_REG_OPT Do not perform pCode registers optimization. This 
  should be used for debugging purposes. If bugs in the pcode 
  optimizer are found, users can benefit from temporarily 
  disabling the optimizer until the bug is fixed.

  Preprocessor Macros

PIC16[LaTeX Command: index] port defines the following 
preprocessor macros while translating a source.


+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|      Macro       |                                       Description                                        |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|   SDCC_pic16     |                                   Port identification                                    |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|     __pic16      |                           Port identification (same as above)                            |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|   pic18fxxxx     | MCU Identification. xxxx is the microcontrol identification 
number, i.e. 452, 6620, etc |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|    __18Fxxxx     |                            MCU Identification (same as above)                            |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| STACK_MODEL_nnn  |           nnn = SMALL or LARGE respectively according to the stack model 
used           |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+


In addition the following macros are defined when calling 
assembler:


+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|      Macro       |                                       Description                                        |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|    __18Fxxxx     | MCU Identification. xxxx is the microcontrol identification 
number, i.e. 452, 6620, etc |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC_MODEL_nnn   |      nnn = SMALL or LARGE respectively according to the memory model 
used for SDCC      |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| STACK_MODEL_nnn  |           nnn = SMALL or LARGE respectively according to the stack model 
used           |
+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+


  Directories

PIC16[LaTeX Command: index] port uses the following directories 
for searching header files and libraries.


+----------------------------+--------------------------+------------+----------------+
|         Directory          |       Description        |   Target   | Command prefix |
+----------------------------+--------------------------+------------+----------------+
+----------------------------+--------------------------+------------+----------------+
| PREFIX/sdcc/include/pic16  |  PIC16 specific headers  |  Compiler  |       -I       |
+----------------------------+--------------------------+------------+----------------+
|   PREFIX/sdcc/lib/pic16    | PIC16 specific libraries |   Linker   |       -L       |
+----------------------------+--------------------------+------------+----------------+


  Pragmas<sub:PIC16_Pragmas>

The PIC16[LaTeX Command: index] port currently supports the 
following pragmas:

  stack[LaTeX Command: index] This forces the code generator to 
  initialize the stack & frame pointers at a specific address. 
  This is an ad hoc solution for cases where no STACK directive 
  is available in the linker script or gplink is not instructed 
  to create a stack section.
The stack pragma should be used only once in a project. Multiple 
  pragmas may result in indeterminate behaviour of the program.[footnote:
The old format (ie. #pragma stack 0x5ff) is deprecated and will 
cause the stack pointer to cross page boundaries (or even exceed 
the available data RAM) and crash the program. Make sure that 
stack does not cross page boundaries when using the SMALL stack 
model.
]
The format is as follows:


#pragma stack bottom_address [stack_size]


bottom_address is the lower bound of the stack section. The stack 
pointer initially will point at address 
(bottom_address+stack_size-1).

Example:



/* initializes stack of 100 bytes at RAM address 0x200 */

#pragma stack 0x200 100

If the stack_size field is omitted then a stack is created with 
the default size of 64. This size might be enough for most 
programs, but its not enough for operations with deep function 
nesting or excessive stack usage.

  code[LaTeX Command: index] Force a function to a static FLASH 
  address.

Example:



/* place function test_func at 0x4000 */

#pragma code test_func 0x4000



  library instructs the linker to use a library module.
Usage:

#pragma library module_name

module_name can be any library or object file (including its 
path). Note that there are four reserved keywords which have 
special meaning. These are:


+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+
| Keyword  | Description                 | Module to link |
+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+
+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+
| ignore   | ignore all library pragmas  | (none)         |
+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+
|    c     | link the C library          | libc18f.lib    |
+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+
|  math    | link the Math libarary      | libm18f.lib    |
+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+
|   io     | link the I/O library        | libio18f*.lib  |
+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+
|  debug   | link the debug library      | libdebug.lib   |
+----------+-----------------------------+----------------+

* is the device number, i.e. 452 for PIC18F452 MCU.

This feature allows for linking with specific libraries withoug 
having to explicit name them in the command line. Note that the 
ignore keyword will reject all modules specified by the library 
pragma.

  udata The pragma udata instructs the compiler to emit code so 
  that linker will place a variable at a specific memory bank.

Example:



/* places variable foo at bank2 */

#pragma udata bank2 foo

char foo;

In order for this pragma to work extra SECTION directives should 
be added in the .lkr script. In the following example a sample 
.lkr file is shown:



// Sample linker script for the PIC18F452 processor

LIBPATH .

CODEPAGE   NAME=vectors    START=0x0            END=0x29          
 PROTECTED

CODEPAGE   NAME=page       START=0x2A           END=0x7FFF

CODEPAGE   NAME=idlocs     START=0x200000       END=0x200007      
 PROTECTED

CODEPAGE   NAME=config     START=0x300000       END=0x30000D      
 PROTECTED

CODEPAGE   NAME=devid      START=0x3FFFFE       END=0x3FFFFF      
 PROTECTED

CODEPAGE   NAME=eedata     START=0xF00000       END=0xF000FF      
 PROTECTED

ACCESSBANK NAME=accessram  START=0x0            END=0x7F



DATABANK   NAME=gpr0       START=0x80           END=0xFF

DATABANK   NAME=gpr1       START=0x100          END=0x1FF

DATABANK   NAME=gpr2       START=0x200          END=0x2FF

DATABANK   NAME=gpr3       START=0x300          END=0x3FF

DATABANK   NAME=gpr4       START=0x400          END=0x4FF

DATABANK   NAME=gpr5       START=0x500          END=0x5FF

ACCESSBANK NAME=accesssfr  START=0xF80          END=0xFFF         
 PROTECTED



SECTION    NAME=CONFIG     ROM=config



SECTION    NAME=bank0      RAM=gpr0       # these SECTION 
directives

SECTION    NAME=bank1      RAM=gpr1       # should be added to 
link

SECTION    NAME=bank2      RAM=gpr2       # section name 'bank?' 
with

SECTION    NAME=bank3      RAM=gpr3       # a specific DATABANK 
name

SECTION    NAME=bank4      RAM=gpr4

SECTION    NAME=bank5      RAM=gpr5

The linker will recognise the section name set in the pragma 
statement and will position the variable at the memory bank set 
with the RAM field at the SECTION line in the linker script file.

  Header Files<sub:PIC16_Header-Files>

There is one main header file[LaTeX Command: index] that can be 
included to the source files using the pic16[LaTeX Command: index]
 port. That file is the pic18fregs.h. This header file contains 
the definitions for the processor special registers, so it is 
necessary if the source accesses them. It can be included by 
adding the following line in the beginning of the file:

#include <pic18fregs.h>

The specific microcontroller is selected within the pic18fregs.h 
automatically, so the same source can be used with a variety of 
devices.

  Libraries

The libraries[LaTeX Command: index] that PIC16[LaTeX Command: index]
 port depends on are the microcontroller device libraries which 
contain the symbol definitions for the microcontroller special 
function registers. These libraries have the format 
pic18fxxxx.lib, where xxxx is the microcontroller identification 
number. The specific library is selected automatically by the 
compiler at link stage according to the selected device.

Libraries are created with gplib which is part of the gputils 
package [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gputils].

  Building the libraries

Before using SDCC/pic16 there are some libraries that need to be 
compiled. This process is not done automatically by SDCC since 
not all users use SDCC for pic16 projects. So each user should 
compile the libraries separately.

The steps to compile the pic16 libraries under Linux and Mac OS X 
are:

cd device/lib/pic16

./configure

make

cd ..

make model-pic16

su -c 'make install'     # install the libraries, you need the 
root password

If you need to install the headers too, do:

cd device/include

su -c 'make install'     # install the headers, you need the root 
password

There exist a special target to build the I/O libraries. This 
target is not automatically build because it will build the I/O 
library for every supported device. This way building will take 
quite a lot of time. Users are advised to edit the 
device/lib/pic16/pics.build file and then execute:

make lib-io

  Adding New Devices to the Port

Adding support for a new 16bit PIC MCU requires the following 
steps:

  Create picDEVICE.c and picDEVICE.h from pDEVICE.inc using
perl /path/to/sdcc/support/scripts/inc2h-pic16.pl 
  /path/to/gputils/header/pDEVICE.inc

  mv picDEVICE.h /path/to/sdcc/device/include/pic16

  mv picDEVICE.c /path/to/sdcc/device/lib/pic16/libdev

  Add DEVICE to /path/to/sdcc/device/lib/pic16/pics.all (and 
  .build).
Note: No 18f prefix here!

  Adjust /path/to/sdcc/device/lib/pic16/libio/*.ignore
Add your DEVICE if it does not compile in adc, i2c, or usart.

  Edit /path/to/sdcc/device/include/pic16/pic18fregs.h. The file 
  format is self-explanatory, just add
#elif defined(picDEVICE)
# include <picDEVICE.h>
at the right place (keep it sorted).

  Edit /path/to/sdcc/src/pic16/devices.inc. Copy and modify an 
  existing entry and insert it at the correct place (keep the 
  file sorted). The file is hardly documented, look at the 
  entries for the 18f2221...

  Recompile SDCC, including the pic16 libraries.

  Memory Models

The following memory models are supported by the PIC16 port:

  small model

  large model

Memory model affects the default size of pointers within the 
source. The sizes are shown in the next table:


+-----------------------------------------++--------------+-------------+
| Pointer sizes according to memory model || small model  | large model |
+-----------------------------------------++--------------+-------------+
+-----------------------------------------++--------------+-------------+
|              code pointers              ||   16-bits    |   24-bits   |
+-----------------------------------------+               +-------------+
+-----------------------------------------++--------------+-------------+
|              data pointers              ||   16-bits    |   16-bits   |
+-----------------------------------------++--------------+-------------+


It is advisable that all sources within a project are compiled 
with the same memory model. If one wants to override the default 
memory model, this can be done by declaring a pointer as far or 
near. Far selects large memory model's pointers, while near 
selects small memory model's pointers.

The standard device libraries (see [sub:PIC16_Header-Files]) 
contain no reference to pointers, so they can be used with both 
memory models.

  Stack

The stack[LaTeX Command: index] implementation for the PIC16 port 
uses two indirect registers, FSR1 and FSR2.

  FSR1 is assigned as stack pointer

  FSR2 is assigned as frame pointer

The following stack models are supported by the PIC16 port

  small model

  large model

Small model means that only the FSRxL byte is used to access 
stack and frame, while large uses both FSRxL and FSRxH registers. 
The following table shows the stack/frame pointers sizes 
according to stack model and the maximum space they can address:


+------------------------------------------------------++---------+---------+
| Stack & Frame pointer sizes according to stack model || small   |  large  |
+------------------------------------------------------++---------+---------+
+------------------------------------------------------++---------+---------+
|                  Stack pointer FSR1                  || 8-bits  | 16-bits |
+------------------------------------------------------++---------+---------+
|                  Frame pointer FSR2                  || 8-bits  | 16-bits |
+------------------------------------------------------++---------+---------+


Large stack model is currently not working properly throughout 
the code generator. So its use is not advised. Also there are 
some other points that need special care:


  Do not create stack sections with size more than one physical 
  bank (that is 256 bytes)

  Stack sections should no cross physical bank limits (i.e. 
  #pragma stack 0x50 0x100)

These limitations are caused by the fact that only FSRxL is 
modified when using SMALL stack model, so no more than 256 bytes 
of stack can be used. This problem will disappear after LARGE 
model is fully implemented.

  Functions

In addition to the standard SDCC function keywords, PIC16[LaTeX Command: index]
 port makes available two more:

  wparam[LaTeX Command: index] Use the WREG to pass one byte of 
  the first function argument. This improves speed but you may 
  not use this for functions with arguments that are called via 
  function pointers, otherwise the first byte of the first 
  parameter will get lost. Usage:

void func_wparam(int a) wparam

{

    /* WREG hold the lower part of a */

    /* the high part of a is stored in FSR2+2 (or +3 for large 
stack model) */

...

}

  shadowregs[LaTeX Command: index] When entering/exiting an ISR, 
  it is possible to take advantage of the PIC18F hardware shadow 
  registers which hold the values of WREG, STATUS and BSR 
  registers. This can be done by adding the keyword shadowregs 
  before the interrupt keyword in the function's header.

void isr_shadow(void) shadowregs interrupt 1

{

...

}

shadowregs instructs the code generator not to store/restore 
WREG, STATUS, BSR when entering/exiting the ISR.

  Function return values

Return values from functions are placed to the appropriate 
registers following a modified Microchip policy optimized for 
SDCC. The following table shows these registers:


+-----------+----------------------------------------+
|   size    |          destination register          |
+-----------+----------------------------------------+
+-----------+----------------------------------------+
|  8 bits   |                  WREG                  |
+-----------+----------------------------------------+
| 16 bits   |               PRODL:WREG               |
+-----------+----------------------------------------+
| 24 bits   |            PRODH:PRODL:WREG            |
+-----------+----------------------------------------+
| 32 bits   |         FSR0L:PRODH:PRODL:WREG         |
+-----------+----------------------------------------+
| >32 bits  | on stack, FSR0 points to the beginning |
+-----------+----------------------------------------+


  Interrupts

An interrupt[LaTeX Command: index] service routine (ISR) is 
declared using the interrupt keyword.

void isr(void) interrupt n

{

...

}

n is the interrupt number, which for PIC18F devices can be:


+----+---------------------------+--------------------------+
| n  |     Interrupt Vector      | Interrupt Vector Address |
+----+---------------------------+--------------------------+
+----+---------------------------+--------------------------+
| 0  |       RESET vector        |         0x000000         |
+----+---------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1  | HIGH priority interrupts  |         0x000008         |
+----+---------------------------+--------------------------+
| 2  | LOW priority interrupts   |         0x000018         |
+----+---------------------------+--------------------------+


When generating assembly code for ISR the code generator places a 
goto instruction at the Interrupt Vector Address which points at 
the genetated ISR. This single GOTO instruction is part of an 
automatically generated interrupt entry point function. The 
actuall ISR code is placed as normally would in the code space. 
Upon interrupt request, the GOTO instruction is executed which 
jumps to the ISR code. When declaring interrupt functions as 
_naked this GOTO instruction is not generated. The whole 
interrupt functions is therefore placed at the Interrupt Vector 
Address of the specific interrupt. This is not a problem for the 
LOW priority interrupts, but it is a problem for the RESET and 
the HIGH priority interrupts because code may be written at the 
next interrupt's vector address and cause undeterminate program 
behaviour if that interrupt is raised.[footnote:
This is not a problem when

  this is a HIGH interrupt ISR and LOW interrupts are disabled or 
  not used.

  when the ISR is small enough not to reach the next interrupt's 
  vector address.
]

n may be omitted. This way a function is generated similar to an 
ISR, but it is not assigned to any interrupt.

When entering an interrupt, currently the PIC16[LaTeX Command: index]
 port automatically saves the following registers:

  WREG

  STATUS

  BSR

  PROD (PRODL and PRODH)

  FSR0 (FSR0L and FSR0H)

These registers are restored upon return from the interrupt 
routine.[footnote:
NOTE that when the _naked attribute is specified for an interrupt 
routine, then NO registers are stored or restored.
]

  Generic Pointers

Generic pointers are implemented in PIC16 port as 3-byte (24-bit) 
types. There are 3 types of generic pointers currently 
implemented data, code and eeprom pointers. They are 
differentiated by the value of the 7th and 6th bits of the upper 
byte:


+-----------------+-----------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
|  pointer type   |  7th bit  | 6th bit |    rest of the pointer       description                              |
+-----------------+-----------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+-----------------+-----------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
|      data       |     1     |    0    |  uuuuuu uuuuxxxx xxxxxxxx    a 12-bit data pointer in data RAM memory |
+-----------------+-----------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
|      code       |     0     |    0    |  uxxxxx xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx    a 21-bit code pointer in FLASH memory    |
+-----------------+-----------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
|     eeprom      |     0     |    1    |  uuuuuu uuuuuuxx xxxxxxxx    a 10-bit eeprom pointer in EEPROM memory |
+-----------------+-----------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| (unimplemented) |     1     |    1    |  xxxxxx xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx    unimplemented pointer type               |
+-----------------+-----------+---------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+


Generic pointer are read and written with a set of library 
functions which read/write 1, 2, 3, 4 bytes.

  PIC16 C Libraries

  Standard I/O Streams

In the stdio.h the type FILE is defined as:

typedef char * FILE;

This type is the stream type implemented I/O in the PIC18F 
devices. Also the standard input and output streams are declared 
in stdio.h:

extern FILE * stdin;

extern FILE * stdout;

The FILE type is actually a generic pointer which defines one 
more type of generic pointers, the stream pointer. This new type 
has the format:


+--------------+---------+------+------+-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| pointer type |  <7:6>  | <5>  | <4>  | <3:0> |  rest of the pointer    descrption                                          |
+--------------+---------+------+------+-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+--------------+---------+------+------+-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|    stream    |   00    |  1   |  0   | nnnn  |   uuuuuuuu uuuuuuuu     upper byte high nubble is 0x2n, the rest are zeroes |
+--------------+---------+------+------+-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+


Currently implemented there are 3 types of streams defined:


+---------------+-------------+---------+----------------------------------------------------+
| stream type   |   value     | module  |                    description                     |
+---------------+-------------+---------+----------------------------------------------------+
+---------------+-------------+---------+----------------------------------------------------+
| STREAM_USART  | 0x200000UL  | USART   |  Writes/Reads characters via the USART peripheral  |
+---------------+-------------+---------+----------------------------------------------------+
| STREAM_MSSP   | 0x210000UL  |  MSSP   |  Writes/Reads characters via the MSSP peripheral   |
+---------------+-------------+---------+----------------------------------------------------+
| STREAM_USER   | 0x2f0000UL  | (none)  | Writes/Reads characters via used defined functions |
+---------------+-------------+---------+----------------------------------------------------+


The stream identifiers are declared as macros in the stdio.h 
header.

In the libc library there exist the functions that are used to 
write to each of the above streams. These are

  __stream_usart_putchar writes a character at the USART stream

  __stream_mssp_putchar writes a character at the MSSP stream

  putchar dummy function. This writes a character to a user 
  specified manner.

In order to increase performance putchar is declared in stdio.h 
as having its parameter in WREG (it has the wparam keyword). In 
stdio.h exists the macro PUTCHAR(arg) that defines the putchar 
function in a user-friendly way. arg is the name of the variable 
that holds the character to print. An example follows:

#include <pic18fregs.h>
#include <stdio.h>

PUTCHAR( c )

{

    PORTA = c;    /* dump character c to PORTA */

} 

void main(void)

{

    stdout = STREAM_USER;    /* this is not necessary, since 
stdout points

                              * by default to STREAM_USER */

    printf (”This is a printf test\n”);

}



  Printing functions

PIC16 contains an implementation of the printf-family of 
functions. There exist the following functions:

extern unsigned int sprintf(char *buf, char *fmt, ...);

extern unsigned int vsprintf(char *buf, char *fmt, va_list ap);



extern unsigned int printf(char *fmt, ...);

extern unsigned int vprintf(char *fmt, va_lista ap);



extern unsigned int fprintf(FILE *fp, char *fmt, ...);

extern unsigned int vfprintf(FILE *fp, char *fmt, va_list ap);

For sprintf and vsprintf buf should normally be a data pointer 
where the resulting string will be placed. No range checking is 
done so the user should allocate the necessery buffer. For 
fprintf and vfprintf fp should be a stream pointer (i.e. stdout, 
STREAM_MSSP, etc...).

  Signals

The PIC18F family of microcontrollers supports a number of 
interrupt sources. A list of these interrupts is shown in the 
following table:


+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| signal name  |        description         || signal name  |              descritpion              |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_RB       |   PORTB change interrupt   || SIG_EE       | EEPROM/FLASH write complete interrupt |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_INT0     |  INT0 external interrupt   || SIG_BCOL     |        Bus collision interrupt        |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_INT1     |  INT1 external interrupt   || SIG_LVD      |     Low voltage detect interrupt      |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_INT2     |  INT2 external interrupt   || SIG_PSP      |     Parallel slave port interrupt     |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_CCP1     |   CCP1 module interrupt    || SIG_AD       |   AD convertion complete interrupt    |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_CCP2     |   CCP2 module interrupt    || SIG_RC       |        USART receive interrupt        |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_TMR0     |  TMR0 overflow interrupt   || SIG_TX       |       USART transmit interrupt        |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_TMR1     |  TMR1 overflow interrupt   || SIG_MSSP     |    SSP receive/transmit interrupt     |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_TMR2     | TMR2 matches PR2 interrupt ||              |                                       |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+
| SIG_TMR3     |  TMR3 overflow interrupt   ||              |                                       |
+--------------+----------------------------++--------------+---------------------------------------+


The prototypes for these names are defined in the header file 
signal.h .

In order to simplify signal handling, a number of macros is 
provided:

DEF_INTHIGH(name) begin the definition of the interrupt dispatch 
table for high priority interrupts. name is the function name to 
use.

DEF_INTLOW(name) begin the definition of the interrupt dispatch 
table fo low priority interrupt. name is the function name to 
use.

DEF_HANDLER(sig,handler) define a handler for signal sig.

END_DEF end the declaration of the dispatch table.

Additionally there are two more macros to simplify the 
declaration of the signal handler:

SIGHANDLER(handler) this declares the function prototype for the 
handler function.

SIGHANDLERNAKED(handler) same as SIGHANDLER() but declares a 
naked function.

An example of using the macros above is shown below:

#include <pic18fregs.h>

#include <signal.h>

DEF_INTHIGH(high_int)

DEF_HANDLER(SIG_TMR0, _tmr0_handler)

DEF_HANDLER(SIG_BCOL, _bcol_handler)

END_DEF

SIGHANDLER(_tmr0_handler)

{

  /* action to be taken when timer 0 overflows */

}

SIGHANDLERNAKED(_bcol_handler)

{

  _asm

    /* action to be taken when bus collision occurs */

    retfie

 _endasm;

}

NOTES: Special care should be taken when using the above scheme:

  do not place a colon (;) at the end of the DEF_* and END_DEF 
  macros.

  when declaring SIGHANDLERNAKED handler never forget to use 
  retfie for proper returning.

  PIC16 Port -- Tips

Here you can find some general tips for compiling programs with 
SDCC/pic16.

  Stack size

The default stack[LaTeX Command: index] size (that is 64 bytes) 
probably is enough for many programs. One must take care that 
when there are many levels of function nesting, or there is 
excessive usage of stack, its size should be extended. An example 
of such a case is the printf/sprintf family of functions. If you 
encounter problems like not being able to print integers, then 
you need to set the stack size around the maximum (256 for small 
stack model). The following diagram shows what happens when 
calling printf to print an integer:

printf () --> ltoa () --> ultoa () --> divschar ()

It is should be understood that stack is easily consumed when 
calling complicated functions. Using command line arguments like 
--fommit-frame-pointer might reduce stack usage by not creating 
unnecessery stack frames. Other ways to reduce stack usage may 
exist.

  Known Bugs

The PIC16 Port currently does not pass SDCC's regression test[LaTeX Command: index]
 suite (see section [sec:Quality-control]) and thus the snapshot 
build regression tests for the PIC16 target are currently 
disabled for all hosts.

Debugging

There are several approaches to debugging your code. This chapter 
is meant to show your options and to give detail on some of them:

When writing your code:

  write your code with debugging in mind (avoid duplicating code, 
  put conceptually similar variables into structs, use structured 
  code, have strategic points within your code where all 
  variables are consistent, ...)

  run a syntax-checking tool like splint[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
   (see --more-pedantic [lyx:more-pedantic-SPLINT]) over the 
  code.

  for the high level code use a C-compiler (like f.e. GCC) to 
  compile run and debug the code on your host. See (see -
  -more-pedantic [lyx:more-pedantic-SPLINT]) on how to handle 
  syntax extensions like __xdata, __at(), ... 

  use another C-compiler to compile code for your target. Always 
  an option but not recommended:) And not very likely to help 
  you. If you seriously consider walking this path you should at 
  least occasionally check portability of your code. Most 
  commercial compiler vendors will offer an evaluation version so 
  you can test compile your code or snippets of your code.

Debugging on a simulator:

  there is a separate section about SDCDB (section [cha:Debugging-with-SDCDB]
  ) below.

  or (8051 specific) use a freeware/commercial simulator which 
  interfaces to the AOMF[LaTeX Command: index] file (see [OMF file]
  ) optionally generated by SDCC.

Debugging On-target: 

  use a MCU port pin to serially output debug data to the RS232 
  port of your host. You'll probably want some level shifting 
  device typically involving a MAX232 or similar IC. If the 
  hardware serial port of the MCU is not available search for 
  'Software UART' in your favourite search machine.

  use an on-target monitor. In this context a monitor is a small 
  program which usually accepts commands via a serial line and 
  allows to set program counter, to single step through a program 
  and read/write memory locations. For the 8051 good examples of 
  monitors are paulmon and cmon51 (see section [sec:Related-open-source-tools]
  ).

  toggle MCU port pins at strategic points within your code and 
  use an oscilloscope. A digital oscilloscope[LaTeX Command: index]
   with deep trace memory is really helpful especially if you 
  have to debug a realtime application. If you need to monitor 
  more pins than your oscilloscope provides you can sometimes get 
  away with a small R-2R network. On a single channel 
  oscilloscope you could f.e. monitor 2 push-pull driven pins by 
  connecting one via a 10 k\Omega resistor and the other one by a 
  5 k\Omega resistor to the oscilloscope probe (check output 
  drive capability of the pins you want to monitor). If you need 
  to monitor many more pins a logic analyzer will be handy.

  use an ICE (in circuit emulator[LaTeX Command: index]). Usually 
  very expensive. And very nice to have too. And usually locks 
  you (for years...) to the devices the ICE can emulate. 

  use a remote debugger. In most 8-bit systems the symbol 
  information is not available on the target, and a complete 
  debugger is too bulky for the target system. Therefore usually 
  a debugger on the host system connects to an on-target 
  debugging stub which accepts only primitive commands. 
Terms to enter into your favourite search engine could be 'remote 
  debugging', 'gdb stub' or 'inferior debugger'. (is there one?)

  use an on target hardware debugger. Some of the more modern 
  MCUs include hardware support for setting break points and 
  monitoring/changing variables by using dedicated hardware pins. 
  This facility doesn't require additional code to run on the 
  target and usually doesn't affect runtime behaviour until a 
  breakpoint is hit. For the mcs51 most hardware debuggers use 
  the AOMF[LaTeX Command: index] file (see [OMF file]) as input 
  file. 

Last not least:

  if you are not familiar with any of the following terms you're 
  likely to run into problems rather sooner than later: volatile, 
  atomic, memory map, overlay. As an embedded programmer you have 
  to know them so why not look them up before you have problems?)

  tell someone else about your problem (actually this is a 
  surprisingly effective means to hunt down the bug even if the 
  listener is not familiar with your environment). As 'failure to 
  communicate' is probably one of the job-induced deformations of 
  an embedded programmer this is highly encouraged.

  Debugging with SDCDB<cha:Debugging-with-SDCDB>[LaTeX Command: index]
   

SDCC is distributed with a source level debugger[LaTeX Command: index]
. The debugger uses a command line interface, the command 
repertoire of the debugger has been kept as close to gdb[LaTeX Command: index]
 (the GNU debugger) as possible. The configuration and build 
process is part of the standard compiler installation, which also 
builds and installs the debugger in the target directory 
specified during configuration. The debugger allows you debug 
BOTH at the C source and at the ASM source level.

  Compiling for Debugging

The --debug[LaTeX Command: index] option must be specified for 
all files for which debug information is to be generated. The 
compiler generates a .adb file for each of these files. The 
linker creates the .cdb[LaTeX Command: index] file from the .adb[LaTeX Command: index]
 files and the address information. This .cdb is used by the 
debugger.

  How the Debugger Works

When the --debug option is specified the compiler generates extra 
symbol information some of which are put into the assembler 
source and some are put into the .adb file. Then the linker 
creates the .cdb file from the individual .adb files with the 
address information for the symbols. The debugger reads the 
symbolic information generated by the compiler & the address 
information generated by the linker. It uses the SIMULATOR 
(Daniel's S51) to execute the program, the program execution is 
controlled by the debugger. When a command is issued for the 
debugger, it translates it into appropriate commands for the 
simulator. (Currently SDCDM only connects to the simulator but 
newcdb at [http://ec2drv.sf.net/] is an effort to connect 
directly to the hardware.) 

  Starting the Debugger SDCDB

The debugger can be started using the following command line. 
(Assume the file you are debugging has the file name foo).

sdcdb foo

The debugger will look for the following files.

  foo.c - the source file.

  foo.cdb - the debugger symbol information file.

  foo.ihx - the Intel hex format[LaTeX Command: index] object 
  file.

  SDCDB Command Line Options

  --directory=<source file directory> this option can used to 
  specify the directory search list. The debugger will look into 
  the directory list specified for source, cdb & ihx files. The 
  items in the directory list must be separated by ':', e.g. if 
  the source files can be in the directories /home/src1 and 
  /home/src2, the --directory option should be -
  -directory=/home/src1:/home/src2. Note there can be no spaces 
  in the option. 

  -cd <directory> - change to the <directory>.

  -fullname - used by GUI front ends.

  -cpu <cpu-type> - this argument is passed to the simulator 
  please see the simulator docs for details.

  -X <Clock frequency > this options is passed to the simulator 
  please see the simulator docs for details.

  -s <serial port file> passed to simulator see the simulator 
  docs for details.

  -S <serial in,out> passed to simulator see the simulator docs 
  for details.

  -k <port number> passed to simulator see the simulator docs for 
  details.

  SDCDB Debugger Commands

As mentioned earlier the command interface for the debugger has 
been deliberately kept as close the GNU debugger gdb, as 
possible. This will help the integration with existing graphical 
user interfaces (like ddd, xxgdb or xemacs) existing for the GNU 
debugger. If you use a graphical user interface for the debugger 
you can skip this section.

  break [line | file:line | function | file:function]

Set breakpoint at specified line or function:

sdcdb>break 100 
sdcdb>break foo.c:100
sdcdb>break funcfoo
sdcdb>break foo.c:funcfoo

  clear [line | file:line | function | file:function ]

Clear breakpoint at specified line or function:

sdcdb>clear 100
sdcdb>clear foo.c:100
sdcdb>clear funcfoo
sdcdb>clear foo.c:funcfoo

  continue

Continue program being debugged, after breakpoint.

  finish

Execute till the end of the current function.

  delete [n]

Delete breakpoint number 'n'. If used without any option clear 
ALL user defined break points.

  info [break | stack | frame | registers ]

  info break - list all breakpoints

  info stack - show the function call stack.

  info frame - show information about the current execution 
  frame.

  info registers - show content of all registers.

  step

Step program until it reaches a different source line. Note: 
pressing <return> repeats the last command.

  next

Step program, proceeding through subroutine calls.

  run

Start debugged program.

  ptype variable 

Print type information of the variable.

  print variable

print value of variable.

  file filename

load the given file name. Note this is an alternate method of 
loading file for debugging.

  frame

print information about current frame.

  set srcmode

Toggle between C source & assembly source.

  ! simulator command

Send the string following '!' to the simulator, the simulator 
response is displayed. Note the debugger does not interpret the 
command being sent to the simulator, so if a command like 'go' is 
sent the debugger can loose its execution context and may display 
incorrect values.

  quit

"Watch me now. Iam going Down. My name is Bobby Brown"

  Interfacing SDCDB with DDD



The portable network graphics File [http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/doc/figures/ddd_example.png]
 shows a screenshot of a debugging session with DDD[LaTeX Command: index]
 (Unix only) on a simulated 8032. The debugging session might not 
run as smoothly as the screenshot suggests. The debugger allows 
setting of breakpoints, displaying and changing variables, single 
stepping through C and assembler code. 
The source was compiled with 

sdcc --debug ddd_example.c 

and DDD was invoked with 

ddd -debugger "sdcdb -cpu 8032 ddd_example"



  Interfacing SDCDB with XEmacs[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

Two files (in emacs lisp) are provided for the interfacing with 
XEmacs, sdcdb.el and sdcdbsrc.el. These two files can be found in 
the $(prefix)/bin directory after the installation is complete. 
These files need to be loaded into XEmacs for the interface to 
work. This can be done at XEmacs startup time by inserting the 
following into your '.xemacs' file (which can be found in your 
HOME directory): 

(load-file sdcdbsrc.el) 

.xemacs is a lisp file so the () around the command is REQUIRED. 
The files can also be loaded dynamically while XEmacs is running, 
set the environment variable 'EMACSLOADPATH' to the installation 
bin directory (<installdir>/bin), then enter the following 
command ESC-x load-file sdcdbsrc. To start the interface enter 
the following command: 

ESC-x sdcdbsrc

You will prompted to enter the file name to be debugged. 

The command line options that are passed to the simulator 
directly are bound to default values in the file sdcdbsrc.el. The 
variables are listed below, these values maybe changed as 
required.

  sdcdbsrc-cpu-type '51

  sdcdbsrc-frequency '11059200

  sdcdbsrc-serial nil

The following is a list of key mapping for the debugger 
interface.

 
;; Current Listing :: 
;;key              binding                      Comment 
;;---              -------                      -------
;; 
;; n               sdcdb-next-from-src          SDCDB next 
command 
;; b               sdcdb-back-from-src          SDCDB back 
command 
;; c               sdcdb-cont-from-src          SDCDB continue 
command
;; s               sdcdb-step-from-src          SDCDB step 
command 
;; ?               sdcdb-whatis-c-sexp          SDCDB 
ptypecommand for data at 
;;                                               buffer point 
;; x               sdcdbsrc-delete              SDCDB Delete all 
breakpoints if no arg 
;;                                               given or delete 
arg (C-u arg x) 
;; m               sdcdbsrc-frame               SDCDB Display 
current frame if no arg, 
;;                                               given or display 
frame arg 
;;                                               buffer point 
;; !               sdcdbsrc-goto-sdcdb          Goto the SDCDB 
output buffer 
;; p               sdcdb-print-c-sexp           SDCDB print 
command for data at 
;;                                               buffer point 
;; g               sdcdbsrc-goto-sdcdb          Goto the SDCDB 
output buffer 
;; t               sdcdbsrc-mode                Toggles Sdcdbsrc 
mode (turns it off) 
;; 
;; C-c C-f         sdcdb-finish-from-src        SDCDB finish 
command 
;; 
;; C-x SPC         sdcdb-break                  Set break for 
line with point 
;; ESC t           sdcdbsrc-mode                Toggle Sdcdbsrc 
mode 
;; ESC m           sdcdbsrc-srcmode             Toggle list mode 
;; 



TIPS

Here are a few guidelines that will help the compiler generate 
more efficient code, some of the tips are specific to this 
compiler others are generally good programming practice.

  Use the smallest data type to represent your data-value. If it 
  is known in advance that the value is going to be less than 256 
  then use an 'unsigned char' instead of a 'short' or 'int'. 
  Please note, that ANSI C requires both signed and unsigned 
  chars to be promoted to 'signed int'[LaTeX Command: index][margin:
 !
] before doing any operation. This promotion[LaTeX Command: index]
  <type promotion> can be omitted, if the result is the same. The 
  effect of the promotion rules together with the sign-extension 
  is often surprising:

  unsigned char uc = 0xfe;
if (uc * uc < 0) /* this is true! */
{
    ....
}

  uc * uc is evaluated as (int) uc * (int) uc = (int) 0xfe * 
  (int) 0xfe = (int) 0xfc04 = -1024. 
Another one:

  (unsigned char) -12 / (signed char) -3 = ...

  No, the result is not 4:

  (int) (unsigned char) -12 / (int) (signed char) -3 =
(int) (unsigned char) 0xf4 / (int) (signed char) 0xfd =
(int) 0x00f4 / (int) 0xfffd =
(int) 0x00f4 / (int) 0xfffd =
(int) 244 / (int) -3 =
(int) -81 = (int) 0xffaf;

  Don't complain, that gcc gives you a different result. gcc uses 
  32 bit ints, while SDCC uses 16 bit ints. Therefore the results 
  are different.
From ”comp.lang.c FAQ”:

  If well-defined overflow characteristics are important and 
  negative values are not, or if you want to steer clear of 
  sign-extension problems when manipulating bits or bytes, use 
  one of the corresponding unsigned types. (Beware when mixing 
  signed and unsigned values in expressions, though.)
Although character types (especially unsigned char) can be used 
  as "tiny" integers, doing so is sometimes more trouble than 
  it's worth, due to unpredictable sign extension and increased 
  code size.

  Use unsigned when it is known in advance that the value is not 
  going to be negative. This helps especially if you are doing 
  division or multiplication, bit-shifting or are using an array 
  index.

  NEVER jump into a LOOP.

  Declare the variables to be local[LaTeX Command: index] 
  whenever possible, especially loop control variables 
  (induction).

  Have a look at the assembly listing to get a ”feeling” for the 
  code generation.

  Porting code from or to other compilers<sec:Porting-code-to-other-compilers>

  check whether endianness of the compilers differs and adapt 
  where needed.

  check the device specific header files[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]
   for compiler specific syntax. Eventually include the file 
  <compiler.h[LaTeX Command: index]> [http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/device/include/mcs51/compiler.h?view=markup]
   to allow using common header files. (see f.e. cc2510fx.h [http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/device/include/mcs51/cc2510fx.h?view=markup]
  ).

  check whether the startup code contains the correct 
  initialization (watchdog, peripherals).

  check whether the sizes of short, int, long match.

  check if some 16 or 32 bit hardware registers require a 
  specific addressing order (least significant or most 
  significant byte first) and adapt if needed (first and last 
  relate to time and not to lower/upper memory location here, so 
  this is not the same as endianness).

  check whether the keyword volatile is used where needed. The 
  compilers might differ in their optimization characteristics 
  (as different versions of the same compiler might also use more 
  clever optimizations this is good idea anyway). See section [sub:Common-interrupt-pitfall-volatile]
  .

  check that the compilers are not told to supress warnings.

  check and convert compiler specific extensions (interrupts, 
  memory areas, pragmas etc.).

  check for differences in type promotion. Especially check for 
  math operations on char or unsigned char variables. For the 
  sake of C99 compatibility SDCC will probably promote these to 
  int more often than other compilers. Eventually insert explicit 
  casts to (char) or (unsigned char). Also check that the ~ 
  operator[LaTeX Command: index] is not used on bit[LaTeX Command: index]
   variables, use the ! operator instead. See sections [type promotion]
   and [sec:Compatibility-with-previous].

  check the assembly code generated for interrupt routines (f.e. 
  for calls to possibly non-reentrant library functions).

  check whether timing loops result in proper timing (or 
  preferably consider a rewrite of the code with timer based 
  delays instead).

  check for differences in printf parameters (some compilers push 
  (va_arg[LaTeX Command: index]) char variables as int others 
  push them as char. See section [sec:Compatibility-with-previous]
  ).

  check the resulting memory map[LaTeX Command: index]. Usage of 
  different memory spaces: code, stack, data (for mcs51/ds390 
  additionally idata, pdata, xdata). Eventually check if 
  unexpected library functions are included.

  Tools[LaTeX Command: index] included in the distribution


+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| Name                         | Purpose                                                              | Directory            |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| uCsim[LaTeX Command: index]  | Simulator for various architectures                                  | sdcc/sim/ucsim       |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| keil2sdcc.pl                 | header file[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] 
conversion  | sdcc/support/scripts |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| mh2h.c                       | header file conversion                                               | sdcc/support/scripts |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| as-gbz80                     | Assembler                                                            | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| as-z80                       | Assembler                                                            | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| asx8051                      | Assembler                                                            | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| SDCDB                        | Simulator                                                            | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| aslink                       | Linker                                                               | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| link-z80                     | Linker                                                               | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| link-gbz80                   | Linker                                                               | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+
| packihx                      | Intel Hex packer [LaTeX Command: index]                              | sdcc/bin             |
+------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+



  Documentation[LaTeX Command: index] included in the 
  distribution


+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Subject / Title                                                                                                                          | Filename / Where to get                                                                                                                       |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC Compiler User Guide                                                                                                                 | You're reading it right now         online at:
[http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/doc/sdccman.pdf]                                                  |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Changelog of SDCC                                                                                                                        | sdcc/Changelog         online at:
[http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/ChangeLog]                               |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ASXXXX[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] Assemblers and
ASLINK[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] Relocating 
Linker  | sdcc/as/doc/asxhtm.html         online at:
[http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/as/doc/asxhtm.html]             |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC regression test[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                               | sdcc/doc/test_suite_spec.pdf         online at:
[http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/doc/test_suite_spec.pdf]                                         |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Various notes                                                                                                                            | sdcc/doc/*         online at:
[http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/doc/]                                                   |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Notes on debugging with SDCDB[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                                      | sdcc/debugger/README         online at:
[http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/debugger/README]                   |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| uCsim[LaTeX Command: index] Software simulator for 
microcontrollers                                                                     | sdcc/sim/ucsim/doc/index.html         online at:
[http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/sim/ucsim/doc/index.html] |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Temporary notes on the pic16[LaTeX Command: index] port                                                                                  | sdcc/src/pic16/NOTES         online at:
[http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/src/pic16/NOTES]                   |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SDCC internal documentation (debugging file format)                                                                                      | sdcc/doc/cdbfileformat.pdf         online at:
[http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/doc/cdbfileformat.pdf]                                             |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+



  Related open source tools<sec:Related-open-source-tools>[LaTeX Command: index]


+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Name                                             | Purpose                                                                                                               | Where to get                                                                                 |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| gpsim[LaTeX Command: index]                      | PIC simulator                                                                                                         | [http://www.dattalo.com/gnupic/gpsim.html]                                                   |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| gputils[LaTeX Command: index]                    | GNU PIC utilities                                                                                                     | [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gputils]                                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| flP5                                             | PIC programmer                                                                                                        | [http://freshmeat.net/projects/flp5/]                                                        |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ec2drv/newcdb                                    | Tools for Silicon Laboratories JTAG debug adapter, partly based 
on SDCDB (Unix only)                                 | [http://sourceforge.net/projects/ec2drv]                                                     |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| indent[LaTeX Command: index]                     | Formats C source - Master of the white spaces                                                                         | [http://directory.fsf.org/GNU/indent.html]                                                   |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| srecord[LaTeX Command: index]                    | Object file conversion, checksumming, ...                                                                             | [http://sourceforge.net/projects/srecord]                                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| objdump[LaTeX Command: index]                    | Object file conversion, ...                                                                                           | Part of binutils (should be there anyway)                                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| cmon51                                           | 8051 monitor (hex up-/download, single step, disassemble)                                                             | [http://sourceforge.net/projects/cmon51]                                                     |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| doxygen[LaTeX Command: index]                    | Source code documentation system                                                                                      | [http://www.doxygen.org]                                                                     |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| kdevelop                                         | IDE (has anyone tried integrating SDCC & SDCDB? Unix only)                                                            | [http://www.kdevelop.org]                                                                    |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| paulmon                                          | 8051 monitor (hex up-/download, single step, disassemble)                                                             | [http://www.pjrc.com/tech/8051/paulmon2.html]                                                |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| splint[LaTeX Command: index]                     | Statically checks c sources (see [lyx:more-pedantic-SPLINT])                                                          | [http://www.splint.org]                                                                      |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ddd[LaTeX Command: index]                        | Debugger, serves nicely as GUI to SDCDB[LaTeX Command: index] 
(Unix only)                                            | [http://www.gnu.org/software/ddd/]                                                           |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| d52[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]  | Disassembler, can count instruction cycles[LaTeX Command: index], 
use with options -pnd                              | [http://www.8052.com/users/disasm/]                                                          |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| cmake[LaTeX Command: index]                      | Cross platform build system, generates Makefiles[LaTeX Command: index]
 and project workspaces[LaTeX Command: index]  | [http://www.cmake.org]     and a dedicated wiki entry: [http://www.cmake.org/Wiki/CmakeSdcc] |
+--------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+



  Related documentation / recommended reading


+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Name               | Subject / Title                                  | Where to get                                                     |
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| c-refcard.pdf      | C Reference Card[LaTeX Command: index], 2 pages  | [http://refcards.com/refcards/c/index.html]                      |
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| c-faq              | C-FAQ[LaTeX Command: index]                      | [http://www.c-faq.com]                                           |
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ISO/IEC 9899:TC2   | ”C-Standard”                                     | [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/standards.html#9899] |
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ISO/IEC DTR 18037  | ”Extensions for Embedded C”                      | [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1021.pdf]      |
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                    | Latest datasheet of target CPU                   | vendor                                                           |
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                    | Revision history of datasheet                    | vendor                                                           |
+--------------------+--------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------+



  Application notes specifically for SDCC

SDCC makes no claims about the completeness of this list and 
about up-to-dateness or correctness of the application notes[LaTeX Command: index]
.


+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Vendor                         | Subject / Title                                                                                                                     | Where to get                                                                                   |
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Maxim / Dallas                 | Using the SDCC Compiler for the DS80C400[LaTeX Command: index]                                                                      | [http://pdfserv.maxim-ic.com/en/an/AN3346.pdf]                                                 |
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Maxim / Dallas                 | Using the Free SDCC C Compiler to Develop Firmware for the 
DS89C420/430/440/450[LaTeX Command: index] Family of 
Microcontrollers  | [http://pdfserv.maxim-ic.com/en/an/AN3477.pdf]                                                 |
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Silicon Laboratories / Cygnal  | Integrating SDCC 8051 Tools Into The Silicon Labs IDE[LaTeX Command: index]                                                         | [http://www.silabs.com/public/documents/tpub_doc/anote/Microcontrollers/en/an198.pdf]          |
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ramtron / Goal Semiconductor   | Interfacing SDCC to Syn and Textpad                                                                                                 | [http://www.ramtron.com/doc/Products/Microcontroller/Support_Tools.asp]                        |
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ramtron / Goal Semiconductor   | Installing and Configuring SDCC and Crimson Editor                                                                                  | [http://www.ramtron.com/doc/Products/Microcontroller/Support_Tools.asp]                        |
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Texas Instruments              | MSC12xx Programming with SDCC                                                                                                       | [http://focus.ti.com/general/docs/lit/getliterature.tsp?literatureNumber=sbaa109&fileType=pdf] |
+--------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+


  Some Questions

Some questions answered, some pointers given - it might be time 
to in turn ask you some questions: 

  can you solve your project with the selected microcontroller? 
  Would you find out early or rather late that your target is too 
  small/slow/whatever? Can you switch to a slightly better device 
  if it doesn't fit?

  should you solve the problem with an 8 bit CPU? Or would a 
  16/32 bit CPU and/or another programming language be more 
  adequate? Would an operating system on the target device help?

  if you solved the problem, will the marketing department be 
  happy?

  if the marketing department is happy, will customers be happy?

  if you're the project manager, marketing department and maybe 
  even the customer in one person, have you tried to see the 
  project from the outside?

  is the project done if you think it is done? Or is just that 
  other interface/protocol/feature/configuration/option missing? 
  How about website, manual(s), internationali(z|s)ation, 
  packaging, labels, 2nd source for components, electromagnetic 
  compatability/interference, documentation for production, 
  production test software, update mechanism, patent issues?

  is your project adequately positioned in that magic triangle: 
  fame, fortune, fun?

Maybe not all answers to these questions are known and some 
answers may even be no, nevertheless knowing these questions may 
help you to avoid burnout[footnote:
burnout is bad for electronic devices, programmers and motorcycle 
tyres
]. Chances are you didn't want to hear some of them...

Support[LaTeX Command: index]

SDCC has grown to be a large project. The compiler alone (without 
the preprocessor, assembler and linker) is well over 150,000 
lines of code (blank stripped). The open source nature of this 
project is a key to its continued growth and support. You gain 
the benefit and support of many active software developers and 
end users. Is SDCC perfect? No, that's why we need your help. The 
developers take pride in fixing reported bugs. You can help by 
reporting the bugs and helping other SDCC users. There are lots 
of ways to contribute, and we encourage you to take part in 
making SDCC a great software package. 

The SDCC project is hosted on the SDCC sourceforge site at [http://sourceforge.net/projects/sdcc]
. You'll find the complete set of mailing lists[LaTeX Command: index]
, forums, bug reporting system, patch submission[LaTeX Command: index]
 system, download[LaTeX Command: index] area and Subversion code 
repository[LaTeX Command: index] there.

  Reporting Bugs[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index]

The recommended way of reporting bugs is using the infrastructure 
of the sourceforge site. You can follow the status of bug reports 
there and have an overview about the known bugs.

Bug reports are automatically forwarded to the developer mailing 
list and will be fixed ASAP. When reporting a bug, it is very 
useful to include a small test program (the smaller the better) 
which reproduces the problem. If you can isolate the problem by 
looking at the generated assembly code, this can be very helpful. 
Compiling your program with the --dumpall[LaTeX Command: index] 
option can sometimes be useful in locating optimization problems. 
When reporting a bug please make sure you:

  Attach the code you are compiling with SDCC. 

  Specify the exact command you use to run SDCC, or attach your 
  Makefile. 

  Specify the SDCC version (type "sdcc -v"), your platform, and 
  operating system. 

  Provide an exact copy of any error message or incorrect output. 

  Put something meaningful in the subject of your message.

Please attempt to include these 5 important parts, as applicable, 
in all requests for support or when reporting any problems or 
bugs with SDCC. Though this will make your message lengthy, it 
will greatly improve your chance that SDCC users and developers 
will be able to help you. Some SDCC developers are frustrated by 
bug reports without code provided that they can use to reproduce 
and ultimately fix the problem, so please be sure to provide 
sample code if you are reporting a bug! 

Please have a short check that you are using a recent version of 
SDCC and the bug is not yet known. This is the link for reporting 
bugs: [http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?group_id=599&atid=100599]. 
With SDCC on average having more than 200 downloads[LaTeX Command: index]
 on sourceforge per day[footnote:
220 daily downloads on average Jan-Sept 2006 and about 150 daily 
downloads between 2002 and 2005. This does not include other 
methods of distribution.
] there must be some users. So it's not exactly easy to find a 
new bug. If you find one we need it: reporting bugs is good.

  Requesting Features<sub:Requesting-Features>[LaTeX Command: index]
  [LaTeX Command: index]

Like bug reports feature requests are forwarded to the developer 
mailing list. This is the link for requesting features: [http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?group_id=599&atid=350599]
.

  Submitting patches

Like bug reports contributed patches are forwarded to the 
developer mailing list. This is the link for submitting patches[LaTeX Command: index]
: [http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?group_id=599&atid=300599].

You need to specify some parameters to the diff command for the 
patches to be useful. If you modified more than one file a patch 
created f.e. with ”diff -Naur unmodified_directory 
modified_directory >my_changes.patch” will be fine, otherwise ”
diff -u sourcefile.c.orig sourcefile.c >my_changes.patch” will 
do.

  Getting Help

These links should take you directly to the [http://sourceforge.net/mail/?group_id=599||Mailing lists]
[footnote:
Traffic on sdcc-devel and sdcc-user is about 100 mails/month each 
not counting automated messages (mid 2003)
] and the [http://sourceforge.net/forum/?group_id=599||Forums], 
lists[LaTeX Command: index] and forums are archived and 
searchable so if you are lucky someone already had a similar 
problem. While mails to the lists themselves are delivered 
promptly their web front end on sourceforge sometimes shows a 
severe time lag (up to several weeks), if you're seriously using 
SDCC please consider subscribing to the lists.

  ChangeLog

You can follow the status of the Subversion version[LaTeX Command: index]
 of SDCC by watching the Changelog[LaTeX Command: index] in the 
Subversion repository [http://sdcc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewcvs.cgi/*checkout*/sdcc/trunk/sdcc/ChangeLog]
.

  Subversion Source Code Repository

The output of sdcc --version or the filenames of the snapshot 
versions of SDCC include date and its Subversion[LaTeX Command: index]
 number. Subversion allows to download the source of recent or 
previous versions [http://sourceforge.net/svn/?group_id=599] (by 
number or by date). An on-line source code browser and detailled 
instructions are also available there. SDCC versions starting 
from 1999 up to now are available (currently the versions prior 
to the conversion from cvs[LaTeX Command: index] to Subversion 
(April 2006) are either by accessible by Subversion or by cvs).

  Release policy[LaTeX Command: index]

Historically there often were long delays between official 
releases and the sourceforge download area tends to get not 
updated at all. Excuses in the past might have referred to 
problems with live range analysis, but as this was fixed a while 
ago, the current problem is that another excuse has to be found. 
Kidding aside, we have to get better there! On the other hand 
there are daily snapshots available at [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/snap.php||snap]
, and you can always build the very last version (hopefully with 
many bugs fixed, and features added) from the source code 
available at [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/snap.php#Source||Source]
. The SDCC Wiki[LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] at [http://sdcc.wiki.sourceforge.net/]
 also holds some information about past and future releases.

  Examples[LaTeX Command: index]

You'll find some small examples in the directory 
sdcc/device/examples/. More examples and libraries are available 
at The SDCC Open Knowledge Resource [http://sdccokr.dl9sec.de/] 
web site or at [http://www.pjrc.com/tech/8051/].



  Quality control<sec:Quality-control>[LaTeX Command: index]

The compiler is passed through snaphot build compile and build 
checks. The so called regression tests[LaTeX Command: index] 
check that SDCC itself compiles flawlessly on several host 
platforms (i386, Opteron, 64 bit Alpha, ppc64, Mac OS X on ppc 
and i386, Solaris on Sparc) and checks the quality of the code 
generated by SDCC by running the code for several target 
platforms through simulators. The regression test suite comprises 
more than 100 files which expand to more than 500 test cases 
which include more than 4500 tests. The results of these tests 
are published daily on SDCC's snapshot page (click on the red or 
green symbols on the right side of [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/snap.php]
).

There is a separate document test_suite.pdf [LaTeX Command: index]
 [http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/doc/test_suite_spec.pdf] about the 
regression test suite.

You'll find the test code in the directory 
sdcc/support/regression. You can run these tests manually by 
running make in this directory (or f.e. ”make test-mcs51” if you 
don't want to run the complete tests). The test code might also 
be interesting if you want to look for examples[LaTeX Command: index]
 checking corner cases of SDCC or if you plan to submit patches[LaTeX Command: index]
.

The PIC14 port uses a different set of regression tests [LaTeX Command: index]
, you'll find them in the directory sdcc/src/regression.

  Use of SDCC in Education

In short: highly encouraged[footnote:
the phrase "use in education" might evoke the association "only 
fit for use in education". This connotation is not intended but 
nevertheless risked as the licensing of SDCC makes it difficult 
to offer educational discounts
]. If your rationales are to:

  give students a chance to understand the complete steps of code 
  generation

  have a curriculum that can be extended for years. Then you 
  could use an fpga board as target and your curriculum will 
  seamlessly extend from logic synthesis ([opencores.org||http://www.opencores.org]
  , [http://www.oregano.at/ip/ip01.htm||Oregano]), over assembly 
  programming, to C to FPGA compilers ([http://sf.net/projects/fpgac||FPGAC]
  ) and to C.

  be able to insert excursions about skills like using a revision 
  control system, submitting/applying patches, using a 
  type-setting (as opposed to word-processing) engine LyX/LaTeX, 
  using [http://www.sf.net||SourceForge], following some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netiquette||netiquette]
  , understanding BSD/LGPL/GPL/Proprietary licensing, growth 
  models of Open Source Software, CPU simulation, compiler 
  regression tests[LaTeX Command: index]. 
And if there should be a shortage of ideas then you can always 
  point students to the ever-growing feature request list [http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?group_id=599&atid=350599]
  .

  not tie students to a specific host platform and instead allow 
  them to use a host platform of their choice (among them Alpha, 
  i386, i386_64, Mac OS X, Mips, Sparc, Windows and eventually [http://www.laptop.org||OLPC]
  )

  not encourage students to use illegal copies of educational 
  software

  be immune to licensing/availability/price changes of the chosen 
  tool chain

  be able to change to a new target platform without having to 
  adopt a new tool chain

  have complete control over and insight into the tool chain

  make your students aware about the pros and cons of open source 
  software development

  give back to the public as you are probably at least partially 
  publically funded

  give students a chance to publically prove their skills and to 
  possibly see a world wide impact

then SDCC is probably among the first choices. Well, probably 
SDCC might be the only choice.


SDCC Technical Data

  Optimizations[LaTeX Command: index]

SDCC performs a host of standard optimizations in addition to 
some MCU specific optimizations. 

  Sub-expression Elimination[LaTeX Command: index]

The compiler does local and global common subexpression 
elimination, e.g.: 

i = x + y + 1; 
j = x + y;

will be translated to

iTemp = x + y; 
i = iTemp + 1; 
j = iTemp;

Some subexpressions are not as obvious as the above example, 
e.g.:

a->b[i].c = 10; 
a->b[i].d = 11;

In this case the address arithmetic a->b[i] will be computed only 
once; the equivalent code in C would be.

iTemp = a->b[i]; 
iTemp.c = 10; 
iTemp.d = 11;

The compiler will try to keep these temporary variables in 
registers.

  Dead-Code Elimination[LaTeX Command: index]

int global;

void f () { 
  int i; 
  i = 1;      /* dead store */ 
  global = 1; /* dead store */ 
  global = 2; 
  return; 
  global = 3; /* unreachable */ 
}

will be changed to

int global;

void f () {
  global = 2; 
}

  Copy-Propagation[LaTeX Command: index]

int f() { 
  int i, j; 
  i = 10; 
  j = i; 
  return j; 
}

will be changed to 

int f() { 
  int i, j; 
  i = 10; 
  j = 10; 
  return 10; 
}

Note: the dead stores created by this copy propagation will be 
eliminated by dead-code elimination.

  Loop Optimizations[LaTeX Command: index]<sub:Loop-Optimizations>

Two types of loop optimizations are done by SDCC loop invariant 
lifting and strength reduction of loop induction variables. In 
addition to the strength reduction the optimizer marks the 
induction variables and the register allocator tries to keep the 
induction variables in registers for the duration of the loop. 
Because of this preference of the register allocator[LaTeX Command: index]
, loop induction optimization causes an increase in register 
pressure, which may cause unwanted spilling of other temporary 
variables into the stack[LaTeX Command: index] / data space. The 
compiler will generate a warning message when it is forced to 
allocate extra space either on the stack or data space. If this 
extra space allocation is undesirable then induction optimization 
can be eliminated either for the entire source file (with -
-noinduction option) or for a given function only using #pragma 
noinduction[LaTeX Command: index].

Loop Invariant:

for (i = 0 ; i < 100 ; i ++) 
    f += k + l;

changed to

itemp = k + l; 
for (i = 0; i < 100; i++) 
    f += itemp;

As mentioned previously some loop invariants are not as apparent, 
all static address computations are also moved out of the loop.

Strength Reduction[LaTeX Command: index], this optimization 
substitutes an expression by a cheaper expression:

for (i=0;i < 100; i++)
    ar[i*5] = i*3;

changed to

itemp1 = 0; 
itemp2 = 0; 
for (i=0;i< 100;i++) { 
    ar[itemp1] = itemp2; 
    itemp1 += 5; 
    itemp2 += 3; 
}

The more expensive multiplication[LaTeX Command: index] is 
changed to a less expensive addition.

  Loop Reversing[LaTeX Command: index]

This optimization is done to reduce the overhead of checking loop 
boundaries for every iteration. Some simple loops can be reversed 
and implemented using a “decrement and jump if not zero” 
instruction. SDCC checks for the following criterion to determine 
if a loop is reversible (note: more sophisticated compilers use 
data-dependency analysis to make this determination, SDCC uses a 
more simple minded analysis).

  The 'for' loop is of the form 

for(<symbol> = <expression>; <sym> [< | <=] <expression>; 
  [<sym>++ | <sym> += 1])
    <for body>

  The <for body> does not contain “continue” or 'break”.

  All goto's are contained within the loop.

  No function calls within the loop.

  The loop control variable <sym> is not assigned any value 
  within the loop

  The loop control variable does NOT participate in any 
  arithmetic operation within the loop.

  There are NO switch statements in the loop.

  Algebraic Simplifications

SDCC does numerous algebraic simplifications, the following is a 
small sub-set of these optimizations.

i = j + 0;     /* changed to: */     i = j; 
i /= 2;        /* changed to: */     i >>= 1; 
i = j - j;     /* changed to: */     i = 0; 
i = j / 1;     /* changed to: */     i = j;

Note the subexpressions[LaTeX Command: index] given above are 
generally introduced by macro expansions or as a result of 
copy/constant propagation.

  'switch' Statements<sub:'switch'-Statements>[LaTeX Command: index]

SDCC can optimize switch statements to jump tables[LaTeX Command: index]
. It makes the decision based on an estimate of the generated 
code size. SDCC is quite liberal in the requirements for jump 
table generation: 

  The labels need not be in order, and the starting number need 
  not be one or zero, the case labels are in numerical sequence 
  or not too many case labels are missing.

  switch(i) {                          switch (i) { 
   case 4: ...                          case 0: ... 
   case 5: ...                          case 1: ... 
   case 3: ...                          
   case 6: ...                          case 3: ... 
   case 7: ...                          case 4: ... 
   case 8: ...                          case 5: ... 
   case 9: ...                          case 6: ... 
   case 10: ...                         case 7: ... 
   case 11: ...                         case 8: ... 
}                                    }

  Both the above switch statements will be implemented using a 
  jump-table. The example to the right side is slightly more 
  efficient as the check for the lower boundary of the jump-table 
  is not needed.

  The number of case labels is not larger than supported by the 
  target architecture.

  If the case labels are not in numerical sequence ('gaps' 
  between cases) SDCC checks whether a jump table with 
  additionally inserted dummy cases is still attractive. 

  If the starting number is not zero and a check for the lower 
  boundary of the jump-table can thus be eliminated SDCC might 
  insert dummy cases 0, ... .

Switch statements which have large gaps in the numeric sequence 
or those that have too many case labels can be split into more 
than one switch statement for efficient code generation, e.g.:

switch (i) { 
  case 1: ... 
  case 2: ... 
  case 3: ... 
  case 4: ... 
  case 5: ... 
  case 6: ... 
  case 7: ... 
  case 101: ... 
  case 102: ... 
  case 103: ... 
  case 104: ... 
  case 105: ... 
  case 106: ... 
  case 107: ... 
}

If the above switch statement is broken down into two switch 
statements

switch (i) { 
  case 1: ... 
  case 2: ... 
  case 3: ... 
  case 4: ... 
  case 5: ... 
  case 6: ... 
  case 7: ... 
}

and

switch (i) { 
  case 101: ... 
  case 102: ... 
  case 103: ... 
  case 104: ... 
  case 105: ... 
  case 106: ... 
  case 107: ... 
}

then both the switch statements will be implemented using 
jump-tables whereas the unmodified switch statement will not be.



The pragma nojtbound[LaTeX Command: index] can be used to turn 
off checking the jump table boundaries. It has no effect if a 
default label is supplied. Use of this pragma is dangerous: if 
the switch[LaTeX Command: index] argument is not matched by a 
case statement the processor will happily jump into Nirvana.

  Bit-shifting Operations[LaTeX Command: index].

Bit shifting is one of the most frequently used operation in 
embedded programming. SDCC tries to implement bit-shift 
operations in the most efficient way possible, e.g.:

unsigned char i;
... 
i >>= 4; 
...

generates the following code:

mov  a,_i 
swap a 
anl  a,#0x0f 
mov  _i,a

In general SDCC will never setup a loop if the shift count is 
known. Another example:

unsigned int i; 
... 
i >>= 9; 
...

will generate:

mov  a,(_i + 1) 
mov  (_i + 1),#0x00 
clr  c 
rrc  a 
mov  _i,a

  Bit-rotation[LaTeX Command: index]

A special case of the bit-shift operation is bit rotation[LaTeX Command: index]
, SDCC recognizes the following expression to be a left 
bit-rotation:

unsigned  char i;           /* unsigned is needed for rotation */ 

... 
i = ((i << 1) | (i >> 7)); 
...

will generate the following code:

mov  a,_i 
rl   a 
mov  _i,a

SDCC uses pattern matching on the parse tree to determine this 
operation.Variations of this case will also be recognized as 
bit-rotation, i.e.: 

i = ((i >> 7) | (i << 1)); /* left-bit rotation */

  Nibble and Byte Swapping

Other special cases of the bit-shift operations are nibble or 
byte swapping[LaTeX Command: index], SDCC recognizes the 
following expressions:

unsigned  char i; 
unsigned  int j; 
... 
i = ((i << 4) | (i >> 4)); 
j = ((j << 8) | (j >> 8)); 

and generates a swap instruction for the nibble swapping[LaTeX Command: index]
 or move instructions for the byte swapping[LaTeX Command: index]
. The ”j” example can be used to convert from little to 
big-endian or vice versa. If you want to change the endianness of 
a signed integer you have to cast to (unsigned int) first.

Note that SDCC stores numbers in little-endian[footnote:
Usually 8-bit processors don't care much about endianness. This 
is not the case for the standard 8051 which only has an 
instruction to increment its dptr[LaTeX Command: index]
-datapointer so little-endian is the more efficient byte order.
][LaTeX Command: index][LaTeX Command: index] format (i.e. lowest 
order first).

  Highest Order Bit[LaTeX Command: index] / Any Order Bit[LaTeX Command: index]

It is frequently required to obtain the highest order bit of an 
integral type (long, int, short or char types). Also obtaining 
any other order bit is not uncommon. SDCC recognizes the 
following expressions to yield the highest order bit and 
generates optimized code for it, e.g.:

unsigned int gint; 

foo () { 
  unsigned char hob1, aob1; 
  bit hob2, hob3, aob2, aob3; 
  ... 
  hob1 = (gint >> 15) & 1; 
  hob2 = (gint >> 15) & 1; 
  hob3 = gint & 0x8000; 
  aob1 = (gint >> 9) & 1; 
  aob2 = (gint >> 8) & 1; 
  aob3 = gint & 0x0800; 
  .. 
}

will generate the following code:

                          61 ;  hob.c 7 
000A E5*01                62         mov   a,(_gint + 1) 
000C 23                   63         rl    a 
000D 54 01                64         anl   a,#0x01 
000F F5*02                65         mov   _foo_hob1_1_1,a 
                          66 ;  hob.c 8 
0011 E5*01                67         mov   a,(_gint + 1) 
0013 33                   68         rlc   a 
0014 92*00                69         mov   _foo_hob2_1_1,c 
                          66 ;  hob.c 9 
0016 E5*01                67         mov   a,(_gint + 1) 
0018 33                   68         rlc   a 
0019 92*01                69         mov   _foo_hob3_1_1,c 
                          70 ;  hob.c 10 
001B E5*01                71         mov   a,(_gint + 1) 
001D 03                   72         rr    a 
001E 54 01                73         anl   a,#0x01 
0020 F5*03                74         mov   _foo_aob1_1_1,a 
                          75 ;  hob.c 11 
0022 E5*01                76         mov   a,(_gint + 1) 
0024 13                   77         rrc   a 
0025 92*02                78         mov   _foo_aob2_1_1,c 
                          79 ;  hob.c 12 
0027 E5*01                80         mov   a,(_gint + 1) 
0029 A2 E3                81         mov   c,acc[3] 
002B 92*03                82         mov   _foo_aob3_1_1,c 

Other variations of these cases however will not be recognized. 
They are standard C expressions, so I heartily recommend these be 
the only way to get the highest order bit, (it is portable). Of 
course it will be recognized even if it is embedded in other 
expressions, e.g.:

xyz = gint + ((gint >> 15) & 1);

will still be recognized.

  Higher Order Byte[LaTeX Command: index] / Higher Order Word[LaTeX Command: index]

It is also frequently required to obtain a higher order byte or 
word of a larger integral type (long, int or short types). SDCC 
recognizes the following expressions to yield the higher order 
byte or word and generates optimized code for it, e.g.:

unsigned int gint; 
unsigned long int glong; 

foo () { 
  unsigned char hob1, hob2; 
  unsigned int how1, how2; 
  ... 
  hob1 = (gint >> 8) & 0xFF; 
  hob2 = glong >> 24; 
  how1 = (glong >> 16) & 0xFFFF; 
  how2 = glong >> 8; 
  .. 
}

will generate the following code:

                          91 ;  hob.c 15 
0037 85*01*06             92         mov   _foo_hob1_1_1,(_gint + 
1) 
                          93 ;  hob.c 16 
003A 85*05*07             94         mov   _foo_hob2_1_1,(_glong 
+ 3) 
                          95 ;  hob.c 17 
003D 85*04*08             96         mov   _foo_how1_1_1,(_glong 
+ 2) 
0040 85*05*09             97         mov   (_foo_how1_1_1 + 
1),(_glong + 3) 
0043 85*03*0A             98         mov   _foo_how2_1_1,(_glong 
+ 1) 
0046 85*04*0B             99         mov   (_foo_how2_1_1 + 
1),(_glong + 2) 

Again, variations of these cases may not be recognized. They are 
standard C expressions, so I heartily recommend these be the only 
way to get the higher order byte/word, (it is portable). Of 
course it will be recognized even if it is embedded in other 
expressions, e.g.:

xyz = gint + ((gint >> 8) & 0xFF);

will still be recognized.

  Peephole Optimizer<sub:Peephole-Optimizer>[LaTeX Command: index]

The compiler uses a rule based, pattern matching and re-writing 
mechanism for peep-hole optimization. It is inspired by copt a 
peep-hole optimizer by Christopher W. Fraser (cwfraser @ 
microsoft.com). A default set of rules are compiled into the 
compiler, additional rules may be added with the --peep-file[LaTeX Command: index]
 <filename> option. The rule language is best illustrated with 
examples.

replace { 
  mov %1,a 
  mov a,%1
} by {
  mov %1,a
}

The above rule will change the following assembly[LaTeX Command: index]
 sequence:

mov r1,a 
mov a,r1

to

mov r1,a

Note: All occurrences of a %n (pattern variable) must denote the 
same string. With the above rule, the assembly sequence:

mov r1,a 
mov a,r2

will remain unmodified.

Other special case optimizations may be added by the user (via -
-peep-file option). E.g. some variants of the 8051 MCU[LaTeX Command: index]
 allow only ajmp and acall. The following two rules will change 
all ljmp and lcall to ajmp and acall

replace { lcall %1 } by { acall %1 } 
replace { ljmp %1 } by { ajmp %1 }

(NOTE: from version 2.7.3 on, you can use option --acall-ajmp[LaTeX Command: index]
, which also takes care of aligning the interrupt vectors 
properly.)


The inline-assembler code is also passed through the peep hole 
optimizer, thus the peephole optimizer can also be used as an 
assembly level macro expander. The rules themselves are MCU 
dependent whereas the rule language infra-structure is MCU 
independent. Peephole optimization rules for other MCU can be 
easily programmed using the rule language.

The syntax for a rule is as follows:

rule := replace [ restart ] '{' <assembly sequence> '\n' 
                            '}' by '{' '\n' 
                                <assembly sequence> '\n' 
                            '}' [if <functionName> ] '\n' 

<assembly sequence> := assembly instruction (each instruction 
including labels must be on a separate line).

The optimizer will apply to the rules one by one from the top in 
the sequence of their appearance, it will terminate when all 
rules are exhausted. If the 'restart' option is specified, then 
the optimizer will start matching the rules again from the top, 
this option for a rule is expensive (performance), it is intended 
to be used in situations where a transformation will trigger the 
same rule again. An example of this (not a good one, it has side 
effects) is the following rule:

replace restart { 
  pop %1 
  push %1 } by { 
  ; nop 
}

Note that the replace pattern cannot be a blank, but can be a 
comment line. Without the 'restart' option only the innermost 
'pop' 'push' pair would be eliminated, i.e.:

pop ar1 
pop ar2 
push ar2 
push ar1

would result in:

pop ar1 
; nop 
push ar1

with the restart option the rule will be applied again to the 
resulting code and then all the pop-push pairs will be eliminated 
to yield:

; nop 
; nop

A conditional function can be attached to a rule. Attaching rules 
are somewhat more involved, let me illustrate this with an 
example.

replace { 
     ljmp %5 
%2:
} by { 
     sjmp %5 
%2:
} if labelInRange

The optimizer does a look-up of a function name table defined in 
function callFuncByName in the source file SDCCpeeph.c, with the 
name labelInRange. If it finds a corresponding entry the function 
is called. Note there can be no parameters specified for these 
functions, in this case the use of %5 is crucial, since the 
function labelInRange expects to find the label in that 
particular variable (the hash table containing the variable 
bindings is passed as a parameter). If you want to code more such 
functions, take a close look at the function labelInRange and the 
calling mechanism in source file SDCCpeeph.c. Currently 
implemented are labelInRange, labelRefCount, labelIsReturnOnly, 
operandsNotSame, xramMovcOption, 24bitMode, portIsDS390, 
24bitModeAndPortDS390 and notVolatile.

I know this whole thing is a little kludgey, but maybe some day 
we will have some better means. If you are looking at this file, 
you will see the default rules that are compiled into the 
compiler, you can add your own rules in the default set there if 
you get tired of specifying the --peep-file option.

  ANSI-Compliance[LaTeX Command: index]<sub:ANSI-Compliance>

The latest publically available version of the standard ISO/IEC 
9899 - Programming languages - C should be available at: [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/standards.html#9899]
.


Deviations from the compliance:

  functions are not reentrant[LaTeX Command: index] unless 
  explicitly declared as such or the --stack-auto[LaTeX Command: index]
   command line option is specified.

  structures[LaTeX Command: index] and unions[LaTeX Command: index]
   cannot be assigned values directly, cannot be passed as 
  function parameters or assigned to each other and cannot be a 
  return value[LaTeX Command: index] from a function, e.g.:

  struct s { ... }; 
struct s s1, s2; 
foo() 
{ 
    ... 
    s1 = s2 ; /* is invalid in SDCC although allowed in ANSI */ 
    ... 
}
struct s foo1 (struct s parms) /* invalid in SDCC although 
  allowed in ANSI */
{ 
    struct s rets; 
    ... 
    return rets; /* is invalid in SDCC although allowed in ANSI 
  */ 
}

  initialization of structure arrays must be fully braced.

  struct s { char x } a[] = {1, 2};     /* invalid in SDCC */
struct s { char x } a[] = {{1}, {2}}; /* OK */

  'long long[LaTeX Command: index]' (64 bit integers[LaTeX Command: index]
  ) not supported.

  'double[LaTeX Command: index]' precision floating point [LaTeX Command: index]
  not supported.

  Old K&R style[LaTeX Command: index] function declarations are 
  NOT allowed.

  foo(i,j) /* this old style of function declarations */ 
int i,j; /* is valid in ANSI but not valid in SDCC */ 
{ 
    ... 
}

  Most enhancements in C99 are not supported, e.g.:

  for (int i=0; i<10; i++) /* is invalid in SDCC although allowed 
  in C99 */

  But some have been added recently in SDCC 2.7.0. They must be 
  considered alpha quality however.

  inline[LaTeX Command: index] int increment (int a) { return 
  a+1; } /* inlines the increment without function call overhead 
  */
int * restrict[LaTeX Command: index] p; /* accepted but ignored 
  */

  Certain words that are valid identifiers in the standard may be 
  reserved words in SDCC unless the --std-c89[LaTeX Command: index]
   or --std-c99[LaTeX Command: index] command line options are 
  used. These may include (depending on the selected processor): 
  'at', 'banked', 'bit', 'code', 'critical', 'data', 'eeprom', 
  'far', 'flash', 'idata', 'interrupt', 'near', 'nonbanked', 
  'pdata', 'reentrant', 'sbit', 'sfr', 'shadowregs', 'sram', 
  'using', 'wparam', 'xdata', '_overlay', '_asm', '_endasm', and 
  '_naked'. Compliant equivalents of these keywords are always 
  available in a form that begin with two underscores[LaTeX Command: index]
  , f.e. '__data' instead of 'data'.

  Integer promotion of variable arguments is not performed if the 
  argument is explicitly taypecasted unless the --std-c89[LaTeX Command: index]
   or --std-c99[LaTeX Command: index] command line options are 
  used.

  void vararg_func (char *str, ...) { str; }

void main (void)
{
  char c = 10;

  /* argument u is promoted to int before
   * passing to function */
  vararg_func ("%c", c);

  /* argument u is not promoted to int,
   * it is passed as char to function
   * if --std-cXX is not defined;
   * is promoted to int before passing
   * to function if --std-cXX is defined */
  vararg_func ("%bc", (char)u);
}

  Cyclomatic Complexity[LaTeX Command: index]

Cyclomatic complexity of a function is defined as the number of 
independent paths the program can take during execution of the 
function. This is an important number since it defines the number 
test cases you have to generate to validate the function. The 
accepted industry standard for complexity number is 10, if the 
cyclomatic complexity reported by SDCC exceeds 10 you should 
think about simplification of the function logic. Note that the 
complexity level is not related to the number of lines of code in 
a function. Large functions can have low complexity, and small 
functions can have large complexity levels. 

SDCC uses the following formula to compute the complexity:


complexity = (number of edges in control flow graph) - (number of 
nodes in control flow graph) + 2;

Having said that the industry standard is 10, you should be aware 
that in some cases it be may unavoidable to have a complexity 
level of less than 10. For example if you have switch statement 
with more than 10 case labels, each case label adds one to the 
complexity level. The complexity level is by no means an absolute 
measure of the algorithmic complexity of the function, it does 
however provide a good starting point for which functions you 
might look at for further optimization.

  Retargetting for other Processors

The issues for retargetting the compiler are far too numerous to 
be covered by this document. What follows is a brief description 
of each of the seven phases of the compiler and its MCU 
dependency.

  Parsing the source and building the annotated parse tree. This 
  phase is largely MCU independent (except for the language 
  extensions). Syntax & semantic checks are also done in this 
  phase, along with some initial optimizations like back patching 
  labels and the pattern matching optimizations like bit-rotation 
  etc.

  The second phase involves generating an intermediate code which 
  can be easy manipulated during the later phases. This phase is 
  entirely MCU independent. The intermediate code generation 
  assumes the target machine has unlimited number of registers, 
  and designates them with the name iTemp. The compiler can be 
  made to dump a human readable form of the code generated by 
  using the --dumpraw option.

  This phase does the bulk of the standard optimizations and is 
  also MCU independent. This phase can be broken down into 
  several sub-phases:

Break down intermediate code (iCode) into basic blocks.
Do control flow & data flow analysis on the basic blocks.
Do local common subexpression elimination, then global 
  subexpression elimination
Dead code elimination
Loop optimizations
If loop optimizations caused any changes then do 'global 
  subexpression elimination' and 'dead code elimination' again.

  This phase determines the live-ranges; by live range I mean 
  those iTemp variables defined by the compiler that still 
  survive after all the optimizations. Live range analysis[LaTeX Command: index]
   is essential for register allocation, since these computation 
  determines which of these iTemps will be assigned to registers, 
  and for how long.

  Phase five is register allocation. There are two parts to this 
  process.

The first part I call 'register packing' (for lack of a better 
  term). In this case several MCU specific expression folding is 
  done to reduce register pressure.

The second part is more MCU independent and deals with allocating 
  registers to the remaining live ranges. A lot of MCU specific 
  code does creep into this phase because of the limited number 
  of index registers available in the 8051.

  The Code generation phase is (unhappily), entirely MCU 
  dependent and very little (if any at all) of this code can be 
  reused for other MCU. However the scheme for allocating a 
  homogenized assembler operand for each iCode operand may be 
  reused.

  As mentioned in the optimization section the peep-hole 
  optimizer is rule based system, which can reprogrammed for 
  other MCUs.

More information is available on SDCC Wiki[LaTeX Command: index] 
(preliminary link [http://sdcc.wiki.sourceforge.net/SDCC+internals+and+porting]
) and in the thread [http://sf.net/mailarchive/message.php?msg_id=13954144]
 .

Compiler internals[LaTeX Command: index]

  The anatomy of the compiler<sub:The-anatomy-of>

This is an excerpt from an article published in Circuit Cellar 
Magazine in August 2000. It's a little outdated (the compiler is 
much more efficient now and user/developer friendly), but pretty 
well exposes the guts of it all.

The current version of SDCC can generate code for Intel 8051 and 
Z80 MCU. It is fairly easy to retarget for other 8-bit MCU. Here 
we take a look at some of the internals of the compiler. 

  Parsing[LaTeX Command: index] 

Parsing the input source file and creating an AST (Annotated 
Syntax Tree[LaTeX Command: index]). This phase also involves 
propagating types (annotating each node of the parse tree with 
type information) and semantic analysis. There are some MCU 
specific parsing rules. For example the storage classes, the 
extended storage classes are MCU specific while there may be a 
xdata storage class for 8051 there is no such storage class for 
z80 or Atmel AVR. SDCC allows MCU specific storage class 
extensions, i.e. xdata will be treated as a storage class 
specifier when parsing 8051 C code but will be treated as a C 
identifier when parsing z80 or ATMEL AVR C code.

  Generating iCode[LaTeX Command: index]

Intermediate code generation. In this phase the AST is broken 
down into three-operand form (iCode). These three operand forms 
are represented as doubly linked lists. ICode is the term given 
to the intermediate form generated by the compiler. ICode example 
section shows some examples of iCode generated for some simple C 
source functions.

  Optimizations[LaTeX Command: index].

Bulk of the target independent optimizations is performed in this 
phase. The optimizations include constant propagation, common 
sub-expression elimination, loop invariant code movement, 
strength reduction of loop induction variables and dead-code 
elimination.

  Live range analysis[LaTeX Command: index]

During intermediate code generation phase, the compiler assumes 
the target machine has infinite number of registers and generates 
a lot of temporary variables. The live range computation 
determines the lifetime of each of these compiler-generated 
temporaries. A picture speaks a thousand words. ICode example 
sections show the live range annotations for each of the operand. 
It is important to note here, each iCode is assigned a number in 
the order of its execution in the function. The live ranges are 
computed in terms of these numbers. The from number is the number 
of the iCode which first defines the operand and the to number 
signifies the iCode which uses this operand last.

  Register Allocation[LaTeX Command: index]

The register allocation determines the type and number of 
registers needed by each operand. In most MCUs only a few 
registers can be used for indirect addressing. In case of 8051 
for example the registers R0 & R1 can be used to indirectly 
address the internal ram and DPTR to indirectly address the 
external ram. The compiler will try to allocate the appropriate 
register to pointer variables if it can. ICode example section 
shows the operands annotated with the registers assigned to them. 
The compiler will try to keep operands in registers as much as 
possible; there are several schemes the compiler uses to do 
achieve this. When the compiler runs out of registers the 
compiler will check to see if there are any live operands which 
is not used or defined in the current basic block being 
processed, if there are any found then it will push that operand 
and use the registers in this block, the operand will then be 
popped at the end of the basic block. 

There are other MCU specific considerations in this phase. Some 
MCUs have an accumulator; very short-lived operands could be 
assigned to the accumulator instead of a general-purpose 
register.

  Code generation

Figure II gives a table of iCode[LaTeX Command: index] operations 
supported by the compiler. The code generation involves 
translating these operations into corresponding assembly code for 
the processor. This sounds overly simple but that is the essence 
of code generation. Some of the iCode operations are generated on 
a MCU specific manner for example, the z80 port does not use 
registers to pass parameters so the SEND and RECV iCode 
operations will not be generated, and it also does not support 
JUMPTABLES. 


Figure II 
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| iCode[LaTeX Command: index]  | Operands                           | Description                                                                                                                                | C Equivalent                                                      |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '!'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | NOT operation                                                                                                                              | IC_RESULT = ! IC_LEFT;                                            |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '~'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Bitwise complement of                                                                                                                      | IC_RESULT = ~IC_LEFT;                                             |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| RRC                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Rotate right with carry                                                                                                                    | IC_RESULT = (IC_LEFT << 1) | (IC_LEFT >> (sizeof(IC_LEFT)*8-1));  |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| RLC                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Rotate left with carry                                                                                                                     | IC_RESULT = (IC_LEFT << (sizeof(LC_LEFT)*8-1) ) | (IC_LEFT >> 1); |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| GETHBIT                      | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Get the highest order bit of IC_LEFT                                                                                                       | IC_RESULT = (IC_LEFT >> (sizeof(IC_LEFT)*8 -1));                  |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| UNARYMINUS                   | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Unary minus                                                                                                                                | IC_RESULT = - IC_LEFT;                                            |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| IPUSH                        | IC_LEFT()                          | Push the operand into stack                                                                                                                | NONE                                                              |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| IPOP                         | IC_LEFT()                          | Pop the operand from the stack                                                                                                             | NONE                                                              |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| CALL                         | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Call the function represented by IC_LEFT                                                                                                   | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT();                                            |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| PCALL                        | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Call via function pointer                                                                                                                  | IC_RESULT = (*IC_LEFT)();                                         |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| RETURN                       | IC_LEFT()                          | Return the value in operand IC_LEFT                                                                                                        | return IC_LEFT;                                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| LABEL                        | IC_LABEL()                         | Label                                                                                                                                      | IC_LABEL:                                                         |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| GOTO                         | IC_LABEL()                         | Goto label                                                                                                                                 | goto IC_LABEL();                                                  |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '+'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Addition                                                                                                                                   | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT + IC_RIGHT                                    |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '-'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Subtraction                                                                                                                                | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT - IC_RIGHT                                    |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '*'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Multiplication                                                                                                                             | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT * IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '/'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Division                                                                                                                                   | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT / IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '%'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Modulus                                                                                                                                    | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT % IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '<'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Less than                                                                                                                                  | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT < IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '>'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Greater than                                                                                                                               | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT > IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| EQ_OP                        | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Equal to                                                                                                                                   | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT == IC_RIGHT;                                  |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| AND_OP                       | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Logical and operation                                                                                                                      | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT && IC_RIGHT;                                  |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| OR_OP                        | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Logical or operation                                                                                                                       | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT || IC_RIGHT;                                  |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '^'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Exclusive OR                                                                                                                               | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT ^ IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '|'                          | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Bitwise OR                                                                                                                                 | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT | IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BITWISEAND                   | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Bitwise AND                                                                                                                                | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT & IC_RIGHT;                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| LEFT_OP                      | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Left shift                                                                                                                                 | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT << IC_RIGHT                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| RIGHT_OP                     | IC_LEFT() IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()   | Right shift                                                                                                                                | IC_RESULT = IC_LEFT >> IC_RIGHT                                   |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| GET_VALUE_
AT_ ADDRESS       | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Indirect fetch                                                                                                                             | IC_RESULT = (*IC_LEFT);                                           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| POINTER_SET                  | IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()             | Indirect set                                                                                                                               | (*IC_RESULT) = IC_RIGHT;                                          |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| '='                          | IC_RIGHT() IC_RESULT()             | Assignment                                                                                                                                 | IC_RESULT = IC_RIGHT;                                             |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| IFX                          | IC_COND IC_TRUE IC_LABEL           | Conditional jump. If true label is present then jump to true 
label if condition is true else jump to false label if condition 
is false   | if (IC_COND) goto IC_TRUE; 
  Or 
If (!IC_COND) goto IC_FALSE;    |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ADDRESS_OF                   | IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()              | Address of                                                                                                                                 | IC_RESULT = &IC_LEFT();                                           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| JUMPTABLE                    | IC_JTCOND IC_JTLABELS              | Jump to list of labels depending on the value of JTCOND                                                                                    | Switch statement                                                  |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| CAST                         | IC_RIGHT() IC_LEFT() IC_RESULT()   | Cast types                                                                                                                                 | IC_RESULT = (typeof IC_LEFT) IC_RIGHT;                            |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| SEND                         | IC_LEFT()                          | This is used for passing parameters in registers; 
move IC_LEFT to the next available parameter register.                                  | None                                                              |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| RECV                         | IC_RESULT()                        | This is used for receiving parameters passed in registers;
Move the values in the next parameter register to IC_RESULT                     | None                                                              |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
| (some more have been added)  |                                    |                                                                                                                                            | see f.e. gen51Code() in src/mcs51/gen.c                           |
+------------------------------+------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+




  ICode Example[LaTeX Command: index]

This section shows some details of iCode. The example C code does 
not do anything useful; it is used as an example to illustrate 
the intermediate code generated by the compiler.

1. xdata int * p;
2. int gint;
3. /* This function does nothing useful. It is used
4.    for the purpose of explaining iCode */
5. short function (data int *x)
6. {
7.   short i=10;   /* dead initialization eliminated */
8.   short sum=10; /* dead initialization eliminated */
9.   short mul;
10.  int j ;
11.  while (*x) *x++ = *p++; 
12.    sum = 0 ; 
13.  mul = 0;
14.  /* compiler detects i,j to be induction variables */
15.  for (i = 0, j = 10 ; i < 10 ; i++, j--) {
16.    sum += i;
17.    mul += i * 3;   /* this multiplication remains */
18.    gint += j * 3;  /* this multiplication changed to addition 
*/
19.  }
20.  return sum+mul;
21. }

In addition to the operands each iCode contains information about 
the filename and line it corresponds to in the source file. The 
first field in the listing should be interpreted as follows:
Filename(linenumber: iCode Execution sequence number : ICode hash 
table key : loop depth of the iCode).
Then follows the human readable form of the ICode operation. Each 
operand of this triplet form can be of three basic types a) 
compiler generated temporary b) user defined variable c) a 
constant value. Note that local variables and parameters are 
replaced by compiler generated temporaries. Live ranges[LaTeX Command: index]
 are computed only for temporaries (i.e. live ranges are not 
computed for global variables). Registers[LaTeX Command: index] 
are allocated for temporaries only. Operands are formatted in the 
following manner:
Operand Name [lr live-from : live-to ] { type information } [ 
registers allocated ].
As mentioned earlier the live ranges are computed in terms of the 
execution sequence number of the iCodes, for example 
the iTemp0 is live from (i.e. first defined in iCode with 
execution sequence number 3, and is last used in the iCode with 
sequence number 5). For induction variables such as iTemp21 the 
live range computation extends the lifetime from the start to the 
end of the loop.
The register allocator used the live range information to 
allocate registers, the same registers may be used for different 
temporaries if their live ranges do not overlap, for example r0 
is allocated to both iTemp6 and to iTemp17 since their live 
ranges do not overlap. In addition the allocator also takes into 
consideration the type and usage of a temporary, for example 
itemp6 is a pointer to near space and is used as to fetch data 
from (i.e. used in GET_VALUE_AT_ADDRESS) so it is allocated a 
pointer register (r0). Some short lived temporaries are allocated 
to special registers which have meaning to the code generator 
e.g. iTemp13 is allocated to a pseudo register CC which tells the 
back end that the temporary is used only for a conditional jump 
the code generation makes use of this information to optimize a 
compare and jump ICode.
There are several loop optimizations[LaTeX Command: index] 
performed by the compiler. It can detect induction variables 
iTemp21(i) and iTemp23(j). Also note the compiler does selective 
strength reduction[LaTeX Command: index], i.e. the multiplication 
of an induction variable in line 18 (gint = j * 3) is changed to 
addition, a new temporary iTemp17 is allocated and assigned a 
initial value, a constant 3 is then added for each iteration of 
the loop. The compiler does not change the multiplication[LaTeX Command: index]
 in line 17 however since the processor does support an 8 * 8 bit 
multiplication.
Note the dead code elimination[LaTeX Command: index] optimization 
eliminated the dead assignments in line 7 & 8 to I and sum 
respectively.


Sample.c (5:1:0:0) _entry($9) :

Sample.c(5:2:1:0) proc _function [lr0:0]{function short}

Sample.c(11:3:2:0) iTemp0 [lr3:5]{_near * int}[r2] = recv 

Sample.c(11:4:53:0) preHeaderLbl0($11) :

Sample.c(11:5:55:0) iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0] := iTemp0 
[lr3:5]{_near * int}[r2]

Sample.c(11:6:5:1) _whilecontinue_0($1) :

Sample.c(11:7:7:1) iTemp4 [lr7:8]{int}[r2 r3] = @[iTemp6 
[lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0]]

Sample.c(11:8:8:1) if iTemp4 [lr7:8]{int}[r2 r3] == 0 goto 
_whilebreak_0($3)

Sample.c(11:9:14:1) iTemp7 [lr9:13]{_far * int}[DPTR] := _p 
[lr0:0]{_far * int}

Sample.c(11:10:15:1) _p [lr0:0]{_far * int} = _p [lr0:0]{_far * 
int} + 0x2 {short}

Sample.c(11:13:18:1) iTemp10 [lr13:14]{int}[r2 r3] = @[iTemp7 
[lr9:13]{_far * int}[DPTR]]

Sample.c(11:14:19:1) *(iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0]) := 
iTemp10 [lr13:14]{int}[r2 r3]

Sample.c(11:15:12:1) iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0] = iTemp6 
[lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0] + 0x2 {short}

Sample.c(11:16:20:1) goto _whilecontinue_0($1)

Sample.c(11:17:21:0)_whilebreak_0($3) :

Sample.c(12:18:22:0) iTemp2 [lr18:40]{short}[r2] := 0x0 {short}

Sample.c(13:19:23:0) iTemp11 [lr19:40]{short}[r3] := 0x0 {short}

Sample.c(15:20:54:0)preHeaderLbl1($13) :

Sample.c(15:21:56:0) iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4] := 0x0 {short}

Sample.c(15:22:57:0) iTemp23 [lr22:38]{int}[r5 r6] := 0xa {int}

Sample.c(15:23:58:0) iTemp17 [lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0] := 0x1e {int}

Sample.c(15:24:26:1)_forcond_0($4) :

Sample.c(15:25:27:1) iTemp13 [lr25:26]{char}[CC] = iTemp21 
[lr21:38]{short}[r4] < 0xa {short}

Sample.c(15:26:28:1) if iTemp13 [lr25:26]{char}[CC] == 0 goto 
_forbreak_0($7)

Sample.c(16:27:31:1) iTemp2 [lr18:40]{short}[r2] = iTemp2 
[lr18:40]{short}[r2] + ITemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4]

Sample.c(17:29:33:1) iTemp15 [lr29:30]{short}[r1] = iTemp21 
[lr21:38]{short}[r4] * 0x3 {short}

Sample.c(17:30:34:1) iTemp11 [lr19:40]{short}[r3] = iTemp11 
[lr19:40]{short}[r3] + iTemp15 [lr29:30]{short}[r1]

Sample.c(18:32:36:1:1) iTemp17 [lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0]= iTemp17 
[lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0]- 0x3 {short}

Sample.c(18:33:37:1) _gint [lr0:0]{int} = _gint [lr0:0]{int} + 
iTemp17 [lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0]

Sample.c(15:36:42:1) iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4] = iTemp21 
[lr21:38]{short}[r4] + 0x1 {short}

Sample.c(15:37:45:1) iTemp23 [lr22:38]{int}[r5 r6]= iTemp23 
[lr22:38]{int}[r5 r6]- 0x1 {short}

Sample.c(19:38:47:1) goto _forcond_0($4)

Sample.c(19:39:48:0)_forbreak_0($7) :

Sample.c(20:40:49:0) iTemp24 [lr40:41]{short}[DPTR] = iTemp2 
[lr18:40]{short}[r2] + ITemp11 [lr19:40]{short}[r3]

Sample.c(20:41:50:0) ret iTemp24 [lr40:41]{short}

Sample.c(20:42:51:0)_return($8) :

Sample.c(20:43:52:0) eproc _function [lr0:0]{ ia0 re0 
rm0}{function short}

Finally the code generated for this function:


.area DSEG (DATA)

_p::

  .ds 2

_gint::

  .ds 2

; sample.c 5

; ----------------------------------------------

; function function

; ----------------------------------------------

_function:

; iTemp0 [lr3:5]{_near * int}[r2] = recv 

  mov r2,dpl

; iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0] := iTemp0 [lr3:5]{_near * 
int}[r2]

  mov ar0,r2

;_whilecontinue_0($1) :

00101$:

; iTemp4 [lr7:8]{int}[r2 r3] = @[iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * 
int}[r0]]

; if iTemp4 [lr7:8]{int}[r2 r3] == 0 goto _whilebreak_0($3)

  mov ar2,@r0

  inc r0

  mov ar3,@r0

  dec r0

  mov a,r2

  orl a,r3

  jz 00103$

00114$:

; iTemp7 [lr9:13]{_far * int}[DPTR] := _p [lr0:0]{_far * int}

  mov dpl,_p

  mov dph,(_p + 1)

; _p [lr0:0]{_far * int} = _p [lr0:0]{_far * int} + 0x2 {short}

  mov a,#0x02

  add a,_p

  mov _p,a

  clr a

  addc a,(_p + 1)

  mov (_p + 1),a

; iTemp10 [lr13:14]{int}[r2 r3] = @[iTemp7 [lr9:13]{_far * 
int}[DPTR]]

  movx a,@dptr

  mov r2,a

  inc dptr

  movx a,@dptr

  mov r3,a

; *(iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0]) := iTemp10 
[lr13:14]{int}[r2 r3]

  mov @r0,ar2

  inc r0

  mov @r0,ar3

; iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0] = 

; iTemp6 [lr5:16]{_near * int}[r0] + 

; 0x2 {short}

  inc r0

; goto _whilecontinue_0($1)

  sjmp 00101$

; _whilebreak_0($3) :

00103$:

; iTemp2 [lr18:40]{short}[r2] := 0x0 {short}

  mov r2,#0x00

; iTemp11 [lr19:40]{short}[r3] := 0x0 {short}

  mov r3,#0x00

; iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4] := 0x0 {short}

  mov r4,#0x00

; iTemp23 [lr22:38]{int}[r5 r6] := 0xa {int}

  mov r5,#0x0A

  mov r6,#0x00

; iTemp17 [lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0] := 0x1e {int}

  mov r7,#0x1E

  mov r0,#0x00

; _forcond_0($4) :

00104$:

; iTemp13 [lr25:26]{char}[CC] = iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4] < 
0xa {short}

; if iTemp13 [lr25:26]{char}[CC] == 0 goto _forbreak_0($7)

  clr c

  mov a,r4

  xrl a,#0x80

  subb a,#0x8a

  jnc 00107$

00115$:

; iTemp2 [lr18:40]{short}[r2] = iTemp2 [lr18:40]{short}[r2] + 

; iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4]

  mov a,r4

  add a,r2

  mov r2,a

; iTemp15 [lr29:30]{short}[r1] = iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4] * 
0x3 {short}

  mov b,#0x03

  mov a,r4

  mul ab

  mov r1,a

; iTemp11 [lr19:40]{short}[r3] = iTemp11 [lr19:40]{short}[r3] + 

; iTemp15 [lr29:30]{short}[r1]

  add a,r3

  mov r3,a

; iTemp17 [lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0]= iTemp17 [lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0]- 
0x3 {short}

  mov a,r7

  add a,#0xfd

  mov r7,a

  mov a,r0

  addc a,#0xff

  mov r0,a

; _gint [lr0:0]{int} = _gint [lr0:0]{int} + iTemp17 
[lr23:38]{int}[r7 r0]

  mov a,r7

  add a,_gint

  mov _gint,a

  mov a,r0

  addc a,(_gint + 1)

  mov (_gint + 1),a

; iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4] = iTemp21 [lr21:38]{short}[r4] + 
0x1 {short}

  inc r4

; iTemp23 [lr22:38]{int}[r5 r6]= iTemp23 [lr22:38]{int}[r5 r6]- 
0x1 {short}

  dec r5

  cjne r5,#0xff,00104$

  dec r6

; goto _forcond_0($4)

  sjmp 00104$

; _forbreak_0($7) :

00107$:

; ret iTemp24 [lr40:41]{short}

  mov a,r3

  add a,r2

  mov dpl,a

; _return($8) :

00108$:

  ret


  A few words about basic block successors, predecessors and 
  dominators

Successors are basic blocks[LaTeX Command: index] that might 
execute after this basic block.
Predecessors are basic blocks that might execute before reaching 
this basic block.
Dominators are basic blocks that WILL execute before reaching 
this basic block.


[basic block 1]

if (something)

    [basic block 2]

else

    [basic block 3]

[basic block 4]


a) succList of [BB2] = [BB4], of [BB3] = [BB4], of [BB1] = 
[BB2,BB3]

b) predList of [BB2] = [BB1], of [BB3] = [BB1], of [BB4] = 
[BB2,BB3]

c) domVect of [BB4] = BB1 ... here we are not sure if BB2 or BB3 
was executed but we are SURE that BB1 was executed.

Acknowledgments

[http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/#Who]

Thanks to all the other volunteer developers who have helped with 
coding, testing, web-page creation, distribution sets, etc. You 
know who you are :-)

Thanks to Sourceforge [http://www.sf.net] which has hosted the 
project since 1999 and donates significant download bandwidth.

Also thanks to all SDCC Distributed Compile Farm members for 
donating CPU cycles and bandwidth for snapshot builds.


This document was initially written by Sandeep Dutta

All product names mentioned herein may be trademarks[LaTeX Command: index]
 of their respective companies. 

  Alphabetical index

To avoid confusion, the installation and building options for 
SDCC itself (chapter 2) are not part of the index.

[LaTeX Command: printindex]

